Provoked and unprovoked aggressiveness in athletes

In a factorial design, athletic involvement (no varsity sport, varsity noncontact sport, varsity contact sport) was varied with induced disposition (unprovoked, provoked). Under conditions of no provocation, no significant differences in aggressiveness were observed between nonathletes and athletes, nor between noncontact- and contact-sport athletes. In contrast, under conditions of provocation, nonathletes displayed more aggressiveness than athletes. Non-contact-sport athletes behaved significantly less aggressively than both nonathletes and contact-sport athletes. Contact-sport athletes failed to behave significantly less aggressively than nonathletes, however. The findings were explained as the result of an acquired superior ability in athletes to cope with provocation under competitive circumstances, which is partially counteracted in contact-sport athletes by their aggressiveness habits and disinhibition training.     

Self-esteem of female athletes and nonathletes relative to sex role type and sport type

The purpose of the present research was to investigate the relationship of the self-esteem of female athletes and nonathletes to sex role type and sport type. The athletic group was comprised of 75 female collegiate athletes from eight sports and the nonathletic group consisted of a random sample of 75 female nonathletes. An assessment of self-esteem and sex role type was completed through administering to all subjects the short form of the (PRF) ANDRO Scale of Masculinity and Femininity, and the Interpersonal Disposition Inventory (IDI). On the basis of the results of the IDI, the subjects were categorized into four sex role types: androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated. Based upon previous research, it was predicted that (1) athletes would exhibit higher self-esteem scores than nonathletes, (2) the self-esteem of androgynous individuals would be higher than other sex role types, (3) the self-esteem of feminine or undifferentiated individuals would be lower than other sex role types, (4) the self-esteem of female athletes in higher femininity status sports would be greater than those in lower femininity status sports, and (5) there would be a greater proportion of androgynous athletes and feminine nonathletes. The following significant results were found: nonathletes in the feminine sex role type were lower in self-esteem than all other groups; and there was a greater proportion of androgynous athletes and feminine nonathletes than expected by chance. There were no differences in self-esteem of athletes in higher femininity status vs lower femininity status sports. These findings were discussed relative to past research, and the potential impact of sport on the psychosocial development or selection of certain sex role types.     

Gender Role Orientation of Athletes and Nonathletes in a Patriarchal Society: A Study in Turkey

The purpose of this study was to compare the gender role orientation and gender role classification of female and male athletes to those of their nonathlete counterparts. A total of 463 athletes and 378 nonathletes completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The findings indicated that athletes score higher on the masculinity and femininity subscales than do nonathletes. Men had higher scores on masculinity than did women, whereas women had higher scores on femininity than did men. In addition, both men and women athletes were mostly classified in the androgynous category. These findings are discussed in relation to the competitive sport environment and Turkish society.     

Attitudes toward violent conflict resolution among male and female karateka in comparison with practitioners of other sports

Most modern martial arts are based upon a philosophy of nonviolence. Whether practitioners of karate indeed have more negative attitudes toward violent conflict resolution than wrestlers and boxers, noncontact sportsmen, and controls practising no sports was investigated (N = 319; 214 men, 105 women; M age = 24.1 yr.). Within sex, male karateka held relatively negative attitudes toward violent conflict resolution, whereas the opposite was noted for female karateka.     

Sex role orientations of male and female collegiate athletes from selected individual and team sports

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether the sex role orientations of male and female collegiate athletes were more similar in team sports than in individual sports. It was predicted that females in masculine-oriented team sports (basketball and volleyball) would exhibit sex role orientations more similar to those of their male counterparts than would females in individual sports (track/field and swimming). To test this notion the S. L. Bem (The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974, 42, 155–167) Sex Role Inventory was administered to 381 athletes from 37 National Collegiate Athletic Association institutions. The median-split procedure (S. L. Bem, On the Utility of Alternative Procedures for Assessing Psychology Androgyny, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977, 45, 196–205) was used to classify subjects as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. Separate Gender × Sex Role Orientation chi square tests were performed on the frequency data of team and individual sport athletes. The results indicated no significant differences in the sex role orientations of male and female team sport performers, with the greatest proportion (66%) having a masculine (33%) or androgynous (33%) orientation. For individual sports there was a significant difference in the sex role orientations of males and females. The highest proportion of females were classified as feminine (37%) and the lowest proportion were classified as masculine (11%). Individual sport males were somewhat evenly distributed among the four sex role orientation categories, with the highest proportion classified as undifferentiated (36%). It was concluded that sex role orientation of elite female athletes may be associated with the male appropriateness of the sport in which they participate.     

Being female and athletic: A cause for conflict?

This study examined the interrelationships among role conflict, gender role orientation, and female sport participation. One hundred six female high school athletes and nonathletes were administered the Personal Attributes Questionnaire and a role conflict inventory. Multivariate analyses revealed that athletes experienced significantly higher levels of role conflict than nonathletes, but a nonsignificant relationship was found between role conflict and gender role orientation. Role conflict was also unrelated to type of sport, although team athletes high in feminine orientation perceived higher role conflict than low feminine oriented athletes. Overall, levels of perceived and experienced role conflict were low. In sum, role conflict does not appear a major concern for adolescent female athletes nor was gender role orientation a factor related to conflict between the roles of female and athlete.     

Socialization influences of collegiate female athletes: A tale of two decades

Over the past decade, sport participation opportunities for females have increased dramatically. The purposes of this study were to compare perceptions of encouragement and support from socializing agents for: (a) female collegiate volleyball players competing during the 1979 and 1989 seasons, and (b) female collegiate athletes and female and male nonathletes. Female athletes (n= 345), female nonathletes (n= 128), and male nonathletes (n= 88) completed a questionnaire to assess significant others' influence on sport involvement during childhood, adolescence, and college years. Results indicated that interest and encouragement by parents, older siblings, and friends significantly increased for female athletes over the past 10 years during one or more developmental period. Discriminant analyses revealed that female athletes perceived stronger influences from mother, siblings, friends, and coaches than did male and female nonathletes. These results demonstrate that female athletes received greater social support than their peers a decade earlier, and these influences were significantly different than male and female nonathletes. This study was supported by a grant awarded to the first author by the Center for the Study of Women in Society, University of Oregon, Eugene.     

Perceptions of current and ideal body shape of athletes and nonathletes

This study was done to examine the relationship between sex and perception of body image among athletes and nonathletes. A total of 211 men and women athletes and nonathletes completed a questionnaire which asked them to identify from a nine-figure body-silhouette scale their current image and the image that they thought was most ideal. t tests showed no significant differences for men based upon athletic participation and that both athletes and nonathletes were satisfied with their body image. However, when comparing current image and ideal image, significant differences were found for women athletes and nonathletes. These data support previous research documenting women's dissatisfaction with their body images and show athletic participation is not associated with this perception.     

Gender identity: affected by social change?

To determine whether social changes in attitudes toward the role of men and women have influenced gender identity measures, 60 male and female college students were assessed using both a Thematic Apperception Test measure (May's, 1966, Deprivation/Enhancement measure) and a self-report measure (Bem's, 1974, Sex Role Identity [BSRI]), both of which were developed more than 20 years ago. Although some recent research has found the BSRI to no longer differentiate between men and women (Twenge, 1997; Wilcox & Francis, 1997), this study found significant gender differences for both gender identity measures.1     

Gender role conflict,gender-typed characteristics,self-concepts,and sport socialization in female athletes and nonathletes

Gender role conflict, masculinity, femininity, physical appearance self-concept, athletic competence self-concept, body image self-concept, and athletic participation by parents among female athletes and nonathletes were examined in 76 female athletes and 69 female nonathletes (N= 145). Similar to previous research, results indicated no significant differences in the gender role conflict of female athletes and nonathletes. Results also indicated that, as predicted, female athletes exhibited significantly more positive athletic competence self-concept, body image self-concept, and athletic participation by parents than female nonathletes. Both participants' body image self-concept and parental sport participation were significantly and inversely related to their amount of gender role conflict. Implications for differences in the social personality and gender role development of female athletes and nonathletes are discussed. Special thanks to Francis Street for her helpful assistance. Thanks also to Pete Toye, Ph.D., Academic Advisor, the University of Wyoming Athletic Department and to coaches Mark Miller, Linda Conger, Mike English, Karoline Eide, Kyle Linton, Chad Lavin, Brenda Erikson, and Paul Barret for their cooperation and assistance.     

Relation of sex and gender role to love,sexual attitudes,and self-esteem

One theory of love (J. A. Lee, The Colors of Love: An Exploration of the Ways of Loving, Don Mills, Ontario: New Press, 1973) assumes at least six different attitudinal orientations toward love. Based on Lee's approach, recent research (e.g., C. Hendrick & S. Hendrick, “A Theory and Method of Love,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1986, 50, pp. 392–402) has found consistent sex differences in love attitudes. Other research has found comparable sex differences in sexual permissiveness and other sexual attitudes. The present study explored the possibility that gender role orientation might be related to differences in love and sexual attitudes. A sample of 286 college students completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), Love Attitudes Scale, Sexual Attitudes Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Correlational analyses revealed many significant associations among love and sexual attitudes, self-esteem, and masculinity and femininity. Subjects were also classified according to gender role as androgynous, masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated, according to BSRI scores. Analyses of variance showed effects for both sex of subjects and gender role orientation on several of the dependent measures. The pattern of the results suggested that sex-stereotyped couples may have difficulties in romantic relationships because of the discrepancies in their love and sexual attitudes. An argument was made in support of the recent trend toward a multidimensional concept of gender role orientation.     

Moral growth among athletes and nonathletes: a comparative analysis

Sport may be described as a unique moral context encouraging adaptations in participants' moral reasoning. The relation between sport participation and maturity of moral reasoning regarding general social problems and sport-specific dilemmas was investigated in two related studies. Study 1 involved 100 high school and college basketball players and nonathletes, with an equal distribution of females and males. Moral protocols were administered and scored according to Haan's (1978, 1983) interactional model of moral development. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed no moral reasoning differences between high school basketball players and nonathletes, but high school females' moral reasoning was more mature than was males'. Within the college sample, nonathletes' moral reasoning was significantly more mature than was athletes'. Also, females' moral reasoning about sport was more mature than that of their male counterparts, though no sex differences were found in general life moral reasoning. In Study 2, 20 swimmers were added to the college sample. Basketball players employed less mature moral reasoning about sport than both swimmers and nonathletes (who did not differ from each other). Results were discussed in terms of sport-specific experiences.     

Teammates On and Off the Field? Contact With Black Teammates and the Racial Attitudes of White Student Athletes1

The intergroup contact hypothesis holds that proximate, cooperative interactions on an equalized basis between Blacks and Whites can minimize Whites’ prejudice (Allport, 1954). This experiment investigated the effect of contact between White and Black high school teammates on White student athletes’ racial attitudes. Using the 1996 Social and Group Experiences (SAGE) survey (created by the authors and administered in the Fall of 1996) commissioned by the National Collegiate Athletic Association, the results indicated a significant relationship between amount of contact with Black teammates in high school and racial policy support and affect, depending on the type of sport played. White student athletes playing team sports who had higher percentages of Blacks as high school teammates expressed more policy support for and greater positive affect toward Blacks as a group than did their counterparts playing individual sports. The role of athletic experiences in changing racial attitudes is discussed.     

Male and Female Athletes' and Nonathletes' Expectations about Sport Psychology Consulting

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore expectations of athletes and nonathletes about sport psychology consulting. Tinsley's (1982) Expectations About Coun-seling-Brief form was revised using sport psychology terms. The revised instrument, Expectations About Sport Psychology Consulting (EASPC) questionnaire, was administered to 111 athletes (64 male and 47 female) and 166 nonathletes (72 male and 94 female) attending an NCAA Division I university. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the data fit the hypothesized 3-factor model (i.e., personal commitment, facilitative conditions, and consultant expertise). A 2 (College Sport Participation) 2 (Gender) MANOVA and follow-up discriminant function analyses revealed that females had higher expectancies of personal commitment than did males whereas males believed that consultants were more directive and more capable of solving problems quickly than did females. No significant differences were obtained between athletes and their peers. The results indicate that the EASPC instrument might be a valuable tool for determining expectations about sport psychology consulting.     

Justifications of Aggressive Behavior in Contact and Semicontact Sports

The present study examines the extent to which athletes in selected contact and semicontact sports report agreement or disagreement with the use of intentional acts of aggression during competition. Eighty-five male athletes responded to the Bredemeier Athietic Aggression Inventory-Short Form and the Mintah Huddleston Aggression Justification Inventory. Overall results revealed no significant differences between subjects' use of hostile and instrumental aggression in sport and between the hostile and instrumental justifications provided for such behavior. Results indicated that contact-sport participants disagree more with the use of instrumental aggression than semicontact-sport participants.     

GENDER BIAS IN THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Using female socialization into sport as an example, this paper empirically examines whether existing conceptual and methodological perspectives pertaining to sport may be gender-biased. A social role–social systems approach, previously applied to male sport socialization and purported to predict a high degree of sport involvement when positive social influences are exerted by significant others, was applied to female athletes and nonathletes. Results from several stepwise regressions suggest that this conceptual approach does not adequately capture the process that pertains to females, as more variance is accounted for in the case of nonathletes, who have lower levels of sport involvement. The implications of such findings suggest that existing conceptual notions pertaining to sport socialization may in reality be a more accurate portrayal of gender role-appropriate behavior in sport rather than actual sport role behaviors.     

Physical fitness differences between athletes and nonathletes: Do changes occur as a function of age and sex?

The main objectives were to determine (a) if physical fitness superiority of athletes over nonathletes increases as a function of age, and (b) if the magnitude of athlete-nonathlete fitness differences are the same in males as in females, and if these differences are consistent across ages. Approximately 3,000 students in grades 3, 7, and 11 (ages 9, 13, and 17 years) were tested on measures of static and explosive muscular strength, static and dynamic muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility. MANOVA and follow-up univariate ANOVAs indicated that the higher the grade, the better the performance; males outperformed females on all measures except flexibility; and athletes were superior to nonathletes on all six test items. Furthermore, (a) there was no difference between athletes and nonathletes at grade 3, athletes were considerably better than nonathletes by grade 7, and the magnitude of the difference was virtually the same at grade 11, (b) the fitness superiority of athletes over nonathletes was essentially of the same magnitude for males as for females at each grade level.     

The effects of gender, race, religion, and political orientation on the sex role attitudes of college freshmen.

Freshmen (N = 556) at a large eastern private university were administered a questionnaire during the first week of classes. A social learning perspective was used to examine the effects of gender, race (Asian, black, and white), religion (Catholic, Jewish, and Protestant), and political orientation (liberal and conservative) on four areas of sex role ideology--traditional attitudes toward female sexuality, justification of male dominance, negative attitudes toward homosexuality, and attitudes toward feminism. Although all four independent variables produced a significant effect on at least one measure of sex role ideology, religion and political orientation produced significant differences on all four sex role measures. Liberals as compared to conservatives and Jews as compared to Protestants were less traditional in their attitudes toward female sexuality, less accepting of male dominance and negative attitudes toward homosexuality, and more accepting of feminist attitudes. The results support the view that entering freshmen have established sex role belief systems that tend to be organized around constellations of traditional/conservative versus egalitarian/liberal attitudes.     

Correlates of Orgasm Adequacy in a Group of 556 Wives

In the present study, the authors examined 53 female athletes drawn from 4 different sports and 55 female nonathletes. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: speed focused and technique focused. The nonathlete control group consisted of college women who had not participated in any varsity sports at the university level. Participants were measured on scales of body dissatisfaction, preoccupation with weight, and self-perceptions of body type and weight. Analyses revealed that (a) speed-focused athletes and technique-focused athletes did not differ significantly in their concerns about weight and body image, and (b) nonathletes expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies than both of the athlete groups. Results are discussed with regard to associations between female sports participation and body image.