Body-image evaluation and body-image investment among adolescents: a test of sociocultural and social comparison theories

Sociocultural theory and social comparison theory were used to account for variations in body-image evaluation and body-image investment among male and female adolescents (N = 1,543). Exposure to magazines and television programs containing idealistic body imagery as well as frequency of self-comparison to universalistic targets (e.g., fashion models) were measured. Results provided minimal support for sociocultural theory, but fairly strong support for social comparison theory. Specifically, the extent to which males engaged in universalistic social comparison predicted appearance self-esteem, number of diets to gain weight, use of pathogenic weight control practices, and use of steroids to increase muscle mass. For females, universalistic social comparison predicted appearance self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, number of diets to lose weight, and use of pathogenic weight control practices. The possibility that the null effects for sociocultural theory were an artifact of dummy coding for missing data or theoretical interdependence were explored, but did not appear to be valid. Limitations of the present study and directions for future research are outlined.     

Positive life events and social support and the relationship between life stress and psychological disorder

Conclusion In conclusion, the present research demonstrated the deleterious effects of negative life events. Number of negative events was a significant predictor of psychological disorder even when initial disorder was statistically controlled. The cross-sectional regression findings provided some support for the stress-buffering effects of positive life events, but these effects were nonsignificant when initial disorder was statistically controlled. The cross-sectional and prospective regression findings suggest that received social support, as measured by the ISSB, does not have a direct or stress-buffering effect on psychological disorder. These analyses, however, demonstrated the direct and stress-buffering effects of perceived social support, as measured by the ISEL, and the data suggest that the ISEL is a promising measure of this construct.The authors thank Sheldon Cohen who provided helpful comments on an earlier version of this article.     

Under threat of social exclusion, females exclude more than males

Theoretical analyses and studies with children suggest that females are more likely than males to respond to threats of social exclusion with exclusion. Here we present a series of studies using a modified version of a computerized competitive game that participants play against two fictitious opponents. In previous studies, females and males have typically made identical strategy choices when playing this game. We show that when players are told that the two fictitious opponents may form an exclusionary alliance against them, females modify their competitive strategies by forming more preventive exclusionary alliances than males do. These results support the idea that adult females are more likely than males to form preventive exclusionary alliances when faced with a social threat. The results further suggest that females and males compete in different ways.     

Predictive models for understanding body dissatisfaction among young males and females in China

The present study was designed to develop predictive models for understanding body dissatisfaction among young males and females (N=1377) in China. Six factors were assessed, including body mass index (BMI), perception of teasing, social pressure to be thin, appearance comparison, thin-ideal internalization and perceived social support. Variables were examined respectively for males and females. One SEM model, which had good fit indices, was developed for each gender. For both genders, BMI exerted its influence on body image directly and indirectly through perception of teasing. Two sources of sociocultural influence, perception of teasing and social pressure to be thin, also directly predicted body dissatisfaction. Gender differences were found in the relation between mediational mechanisms (social comparison and thin-ideal internalization) and body dissatisfaction. For females but not males, social comparison and internalization acted as weak but significant mediators between sociocultural influence and body image concerns. Implications and limitations are discussed.     

Relationships among self‐construal,gender, social dominance orientation,and interpersonal distance

The present research focuses on the cognitive embodiment of physical proximity, through interpersonal distance’s relationship with self‐construal, gender, and social dominance orientation. Previous work showed that more independent self‐construal was associated with higher distancing preferences of participants, and that females tend to have higher interdependent self‐construal that lead them to prefer less interpersonal distance. We expected to replicate these findings. However, due to the relationship between power and interpersonal distance, it was argued that gender and perceptions regarding the social hierarchy would also play a role in predicting interpersonal distance. More specifically, it was predicted that while females who accept social hierarchies between males and females would prefer more distance when interacting with males, males would not differ in their preference for social distance. One hundred participants (67 female) completed the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale, Independent and Interdependent Self‐Construal Scales and the Social Dominance Orientation Scale. Interdependent self‐construal was negatively correlated with overall preferred interpersonal distance. Moreover, females high on social dominance orientation preferred larger interpersonal distance from male adult strangers than from female adult strangers. The findings provide further support for the embodiment of self‐construal by showing that psychological closeness and heteronomy are related to physical closeness. The findings also highlight the importance of investigating communal sharing and authority ranking dimensions simultaneously when focusing on interpersonal distance as well as differentiating females’ interpersonal sensitivity due to low power with their high affiliation.     

Locus of control,life stress,and social networks: Gender differences in the health status of the elderly

A sample of community-based older adults were interviewed and given a questionnaire in order to examine the effects of stress, social support, and locus of control on two measures of health: the number of actual symptoms and self-ratings of health. Subjects were 83% white, 63% female, and represented middle- and working-class backgrounds. All variables showed association with symptom levels, and for men, both locus of control and friend support networks predicted subjective ratings of health even after controlling for the level of symptomatology. Moreover, an internal locus of control was found to buffer the deleterious effect of symptoms of physical illness on self-rated health. The results suggest that a supportive network and a sense of control build confidence in one's capacity to cope both with external stressors and with sickness itself, but these factors are stronger influences for males than for females.     

Assessing the role of aggression,empathy, and self‐serving cognitive distortions in trait emotional manipulation

This study extended the examination of the predictors of emotional manipulation. Participants (N = 243) completed measures of trait emotional manipulation, emotional intelligence, social skills, psychopathy, aggression, empathy, and self‐serving cognitive distortions in a cross‐sectional correlational design. For males, higher levels of emotional intelligence, social information processing, indirect aggression, and self‐serving cognitive distortions significantly predicted emotional manipulation. For females, being younger, higher levels of emotional intelligence, indirect aggression, primary psychopathic traits, and lower levels of social awareness significantly predicted emotional manipulation. However for females, emotional intelligence acted as a suppressor. These findings support previous indications that the mechanisms behind emotional manipulation differ as a function of gender. Future research could include ability, rather than trait measures of emotional manipulation, as well as the role of context (such as intimate relationships or workplace environments), thereby allowing additional examination of the nomological network of emotional manipulation.     

Gender differences in the structure and support characteristics of black adolescents' social networks

This study explores gender differences in the social network characteristics of 390 Black American adolescents with a mean age of 14.8 Each adolescent completed the Social Network Record (SNR), which yields scores representing the organizational/demographic structure and the quality of emotional support in the network. It was hypothesized that males and females would construct different network profiles. Gender differences in both structural and support characteristics were found. Females indicated that they had more frequent contact with network members, that their network was on average slightly older, and that they tended to see network members in more private settings. Females also estimated that they know more people than males, although there were no differences between males and females in the actual number of network members listed and described. Males were much more likely to report having larger groups of intimate friends than did females. While females tended to nominate family members as role models and were more likely to indicate feeling close to both male and female peers, males indicated overwhelmingly that they felt close to male peers. The differences indicate that male and female adolescents experience very differently structured forms of social support. These results are discussed as they relate to gender differences found in achievement and other indices of competence during adolescence.     

Sexual Peak: Socially Shared Cognitions About Desire,Frequency, and Satisfaction in Men and Women

Is a man’s sexual peak earlier than a woman’s? Three studies were conducted to examine (a) whether the perception that men achieve their sexual peak at a younger age than do women is shared across individuals of different ages and sexes, (b) whether sexual peak is defined differently for men and women, and (c) whether differences between definitions contribute to differences in the age at which men and women are perceived to reach sexual peak. Study 1 suggested that participants believed that females reach their sexual peak at an older age than do males. Study 2 indicated that the defining feature of sexual peak for males was sexual desire and for females was sexual satisfaction. Study 3 suggested that predictions of male sexual peak coincided with participants’ predictions of male age of highest desire and frequency, but not satisfaction, and that female sexual peak coincided with participants' predictions of female age of highest satisfaction but not frequency or desire. Discussion focuses on potential reasons for differences between the perception of male and female sexuality, as well as the social and evolutionary importance of each of the dimensions of sexuality for both males and females.     

Intimacy in same-sex friendships

Three studies were conducted to evaluate the significance of the finding that females are more disclosing in their same-sex friendships than are males. No support was found for the suggestion that males feel just as close to their same-sex friends as do females. However, there was support for a developmental contention that during adolescence both sexes expect to become more disclosing in their other-sex friendships in adulthood, and that the spousal relationship should be the most intimate. Further, both sexes, whether in the United States or Hungary, believe females are more disclosing of their feelings and problems than are males. Although males do seem to wish to be more disclosing, they expect to be more open mainly in other-sex friendships. The majority of adults profess little concern about disclosure in same-sex friendships, but women report feeling more at ease in relating to other women than to men.     

Grade Expectations as a Function of Sex, Academic Discipline, and Sex of Instructor

Twelve hundred and fifty college students starting introductory courses in thirteen academic disciplines were asked to predict their grade in the course. Results showed that overall, males predicted higher grades for themselves than did females (p <.001). This held true for entering freshmen as well as for those with previous college experience. The phenomena was noted in 26 of 37 classes tested, including 7 of 9 in the natural sciences, 11 of 13 in the social sciences, but only 8 of 15 in the humanities. Sex of the instructor was irrelevant, raising the question of whether female instructors as role models have the positive effect upon women students that has been claimed. The differences found were slight, but persistent. Both sexes predicted very high grades. The data suggest that sex differences in prediction were not based on a female sense of incompetence, but upon a greater willingness among males to make highly positive predictions.     

Social Involvement as a Mediator of Disaster-Induced Stress1

This study examined individuals either personally or indirectly exposed to disaster and hypothesized that social involvement would differentially mediate the effect of exposure on the mental health of male and female victims. The study reinterviewed individuals previously interviewed just prior to disastrous floods and the discovery of unsafe levels of dioxin. Results indicated that males and females differ in their response to disaster exposure. Males showed increased symptoms of alcohol abuse and depression as a result of either personal, or both personal and indirect, exposure to disaster. In contrast, females' s]ymptomatology was not directly elevated by personal disaster exposure. Both sexes were sensitive to demands for support as a mediator of disaster effects. That is, victims both personally exposed to disaster and heavily relied upon by network members were far more likely to somatize (females) or abuse alcohol (males) than personally exposed individuals subject to more moderate network demands. Although excellent spouse support attenuated male symptomatology, its presence was associated with an exacerbation of symptoms in personally exposed females. Results suggest the importance of considering both the positive and negative consequences of social involvement because, for women in particular, very strong social ties may be more burdensome than supportive in times of extreme stress.     

Gender differences in the relationship of moderator variables to stress and symptoms

Abstract

This study focused on gender differences in the relationship of four moderator variables (hostility, social support, optimism, and Type A behavior) to perceptions of symptoms and stress based on a sample of 120 female and 79 male undergraduates. Results confirmed significant gender differences in hostility, Type A behavior, and social support but not in optimism. Multiple regression analyses exposed distinct gender differences. For females, social support accounted for 21% and hostility 5% of the total variance in perceived stress. For males, only hostility accounted for any significant variance (10%). Hostility contributed 21% and social support contributed 13% to the total variance in the number of symptoms for females. For males, optimism contributed 14% and hostility 5%. Results indicate that social support is a potent variable for females in their perception of both stress and symptoms but essentially unrelated for males. Hostility, however, relates to perceptions of stress and symptoms for both sexes.     

Reading and Empathy

The relationship between reading and empathy was explored. Controlling for GPA and gender, reading variables were hypothesized as related to empathy; the relationship was expected to differ for males and females. For the complete sample, affective components were related to GPA but not reading. Perspective taking was related to reading appreciation but not GPA. For females, reading appreciation was related to perspective taking and empathic concern. For males, GPA and non-fiction reading were positively related, but both were negatively related to empathic concern. Results suggest reading may promote both academic achievement and social development. Findings and social implications are discussed.     

Social Support, Social Undermining, and Coping in Underemployed and Unemployed Persons

Participants (94 unemployed, 77 underemployed) were administered scales tapping social support, social undermining, coping, and distress. We hypothesised that the unemployed would exhibit less social support but more social undermining and distress than the underemployed; females would report more social support but less social undermining; social support would better predict coping than social undermining; social undermining would better predict distress than social support. The unemployed reported less social support, more distress, and poorer coping. Males reported less social support and more emotion-focused coping. Social support significantly predicted distress and coping. No group or gender differences were identified for social undermining, which did not predict distress or coping. We discuss the role of social undermining and distress in the unemployed.     

Social support,self-esteem and depression: Relationship with risk for sexually transmitted infections/HIV transmission

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV are important health problems that affect adolescents. The aim of the present study was to analyze the relationship between 1) depression, self-esteem and perceived social support and 2) sexual risk behaviors according to gender. The sample used in this ex post facto study was composed of 1,005 adolescents of both sexes aged between 14 and 18 years. Participants completed several questionnaires in the classrooms of their secondary education schools. The questionnaires assessed depression, self-esteem and perceived social support and recorded information on sexual behavior and socio-demographic issues. Results showed that, among males, self-esteem predicted higher vaginal risk, depression was related to higher vaginal, anal and oral sexual risk, and perceived support from the family predicted lower vaginal and anal sexual risk. Among females, self-esteem was found to be associated with lower anal sexual risk and perceived support from friends predicted lower anal and oral sexual risk. The study highlights the importance of considering family and friends as well as gender differences in the prevention of STIs/HIV.     

社会支持对大学生主观幸福感的影响

采用量表法以 3 1 4名大学生为被试研究了社会支持与主观幸福感的关系 ,评估了社会支持对大学生主观幸福感的影响。差异检验表明 ,总体主观幸福感、生活满意度、朋友支持、其他支持以及总的社会支持存在性别上的差异 ,女生的得分均高于男生 ,而在积极情感和消极情感以及家庭支持方面则没有表现出性别差异。回归分析表明 ,社会支持的不同方面对主观幸福感的不同方面产生影响 ;在预测主观幸福感时 ,不同的社会支持指标的预测力是不同的。     

Differential effects of social support and social network on physiological and social outcomes in men and women with type II diabetes mellitus

Patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) were advised to comply with a complex behavioral regimen of diet and exercise. The relationship between social support satisfaction and social support network size was evaluated using the Social Support Questionnaire for 32 men and 44 women with a confirmed diagnosis of NIDDM. Control of diabetes, as measured by the glycosylated hemoglobin assay, was significantly correlated with social support satisfaction for women but negatively correlated with social support satisfaction for men. Social support network size differentially predicted success in a program for men and women. For women, network size was significantly correlated with failure to attend sessions and with failure to complete a diary. For these women, network size was not significantly correlated with weight loss, which was the goal of the program. For men, network size was correlated with increases in weight, cholesterol, and triglycerides over an 18-month period. We conclude that social support network size and satisfaction have different functions for men and women faced with a serious chronic illness. Network size adversely affects success in a program, whereas social support satisfaction has some benefits for women. The direction of the influence of social network may be determined by the similarity or dissimilarity of network norms to the desired behavior.     

The relationship of the Marlowe-Crowne Scale and its components to defensive preferences

Two lines of recent research have interpreted the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MC-SDS) as a measure of either need to avoid social disapproval or need to protect and maintain vulnerable self-esteem. In addition, it has been suggested that two component (Attribution and Denial) scores derived from the MC-SDS are differentially related to defensiveness. The present study tested several hypotheses regarding the relationship of the MC-SDS and its components to relative preference for five classes of defensive responses, as measured by the Defense Mechanisms Inventory. Results among females best supported a disapproval-avoidance interpretation of the MC-SDS. while no support was found for the proposed differential validity of the attribution, and denial components. Support for such differential validity was, however, obtained among males. Results for this group suggest that high denial component scorers will opt for protecting vulnerable self-esteem even in the face of possible social disapproval, while high attribution scorers are primarily concerned with avoiding such disapproval. Implications for use of the MCSDS and its components as measures of defensiveness are discussed and suggestions for additional research are presented.     

The Relationship of the Marlowe-Crowne Scale and its Components to Defensive Preferences

Two lines of recent research have interpreted the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MC-SDS) as a measure of either need to avoid social disapproval or need to protect and maintain vulnerable self-esteem. In addition, it has been suggested that two component (Attribution and Denial) scores derived from the MC-SDS are differentially related to defensiveness. The present study tested several hypotheses regarding the relationship of the MC-SDS and its components to relative preference for five classes of defensive responses, as measured by the Defense Mechanisms Inventory. Results among females best supported a disapproval-avoidance interpretation of the MC-SDS. while no support was found for the proposed differential validity of the attribution, and denial components. Support for such differential validity was, however, obtained among males. Results for this group suggest that high denial component scorers will opt for protecting vulnerable self-esteem even in the face of possible social disapproval, while high attribution scorers are primarily concerned with avoiding such disapproval. Implications for use of the MCSDS and its components as measures of defensiveness are discussed and suggestions for additional research are presented.