Evolutionary policy contexts and policies in preparation for the twenty‐first century

The importance of preparing now for the next century is emphasized. The author's field and Kondratiev theories as a basis for long‐range policymaking over periods of dynamic, recon‐figurational change are briefly reviewed, and a number of assumptions relevant to this kind of policymaking are provided.. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium structures and thinking are contrasted. Limitations to control associated with limits to knowledge and knowability are discussed. The possibility is considered that continuation of present policies and practices may accelerate movement along a trajectory to nowhere. Problem solutions are considered within the context of what is meant by a civilized society, and some 15 characteristics of a civilized society are proposed. The theoretical basis for preparation for the Twenty‐First Century is advanced. Deficiencies in the present dominant politicoeconomic theories of Western Capitalistic Democracy and Marxism are discussed, and the need for a new set of “founding fathers” is proposed. The importance of developing and implementing a replacement theory of similar magnitude to present theories is emphasized, and the nature of this theory is briefly sketched. Some recommendations for guided paradigm change are offered.     

Classification in psychopathology: rationale, alternatives, and standards

The elements that constitute a scientific taxonomy are outlined and presented with reference to the structure of psychopathologic categorization and diagnosis. The terminology, logic, and conceptual issues associated with clinical classification are discussed. Alternatives for the selection of substantive clinical attributes, the overall structural format into which categories are organized, and construction procedures used in developing a psychopathologic taxonomy are elaborated, as are a number of criteria for evaluating the taxonomy's utility and efficacy.     

A process-based model for an interactive ontology

The paper proposes a process-based model for an ontology that encompasses the emergence of process systems generated by increasingly complex levels of organization. Starting with a division of processes into those that are persistent and those that are fleeting, the model builds through a series of exclusive and exhaustive disjunctions. The crucial distinction is between those persistent and cohesive systems that are energy wells, and those that are far-from-equilibrium. The latter are necessarily open; they can persist only by interaction with their environments. Further distinctions, developed by means of the notions of self-maintenance and error detection, lead to the identification of complex biological organisms that are flexible learners, some of which are self-conscious and form themselves into social institutions. This model provides a non-reductive model for understanding human beings as both embodied and yet emergent. In particular, it provides a way of characterizing action as ‘metaphysically deep’, not an ontological embarrassment within an otherwise physicalist world.     

Form and exploration of mechanical stability limits in erect stance

The stability limits of erect stance are described as a geometrical structure in a movement space. Mechanical properties and response latency, a neural property, are determining factors for the stability limits. Standing stability limits of adults and young children are compared, and a simple scheme is suggested by means of which infants can discover the stability limits as they learn to stand. The mechanics of different standing movements are discussed because their spatial temporal properties relate directly to their different stability limits. The combination of the stability limits for different movements gives a total set of stability limits, a different structure for adults than for children.     

THE CHINESE PERSPECTIVES ON MORAL JUDGMENT DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg's theory of moral development is extended and revised. The Chinese perspectives on moral development are integrated into the present 6-stage model. The last three stages are: (4) Golden mean orientation and social system; (5) Majority rights and individual rights, and (6) Universal ethical principles of natural harmony. The first three stages are hypothesized to be cultural universal but the last three stages are supposed to have a cultural component. For each of the Stages 4, 5 and 6, a general structure is constructed and then a Chinese sub-structure and a Western sub-structure are derived from their corresponding general structure. Confucian and Taoistic philosophies are employed to elaborate some of the characteristics of the Chinese sub-structures.     

Automated preference testing apparatus for rating palatability of foods

An electronic preference testing apparatus is described for measuring taste preference of rodents and other small animals with solid or liquid foods. The apparatus is designed on the principle of the two-choice, preference technique. It operates photoelectrically with a sequence of presentations so that whenever a subject eats from a compartmentalized food tray, a standard and a test food are each briefly sampled alone before both foods are presented together (in alternate positions) for preference determination. Preferences are automatically recorded on digital counters. The apparatus is built in two modules (a preference tester and the master control) connected by multiconductor cable. The modular design provides portability and isolation of the animals from the major noise-producing components. Diagrams of the apparatus are given, and test results from a trial that evaluated positional bias and a sucrose-concentration preference experiment are presented to demonstrate its application in research.     

A puzzle about mental self-representation and causation

The paper articulates a puzzle that consists in the prima facie incompatibility between three widely accepted theses. The first thesis is, roughly, that there are intrinsically self-representational thoughts. The second thesis is, roughly, that there is a particular causal constraint on mental representation. The third thesis is, roughly, that nothing causes itself. In this paper, the theses are articulated in a less rough manner with the occurrence of the puzzle as a result. Finally, a number of solution strategies are considered, and a preliminary diagnosis is provided.     

On-line monitoring of eye-position signals in contingent and noncontingent paradigms

This paper presents a research methodology for the study of human attentional and perceptual processes by means of on-line monitoring of eye-position signals. The first part of the presentation considers techniques by which commercially available apparatus may be interfaced to a minicomputer for purposes of monitoring eye-position signals during psychological experiments. Hardware and software techniques related to automating the calibration, recording, and analysis of eye-position data are discussed. The second part of the paper discusses a more advanced research methodology, one in which visual stimuli are contingent upon momentary eye-position signals. The methodology is appropriate to a variety of studies in which eye movements are considered to be part of an attentional control system. Several experimental applications are described. The implementation of eye-position-stimulus contingencies on a small computer poses additional technical problems, several of which are discussed.     

Analysis of human body dynamics in simulated rear-end impacts

The objective of this study is to simulate the dynamic response of the human body within a rear-end impacted vehicle. A nonlinear mathematical model of a human body and a restraint system has been formulated. The model consists of connected rigid bodies representing the torso and limbs of the human frame. Nonlinear springs and dampers are used at the connection joints to represent human anatomical characteristics and limits imposed by muscles, ligaments, and soft tissue. Equations of motion are written for this model by using Kane's equation and multibody dynamics analysis procedures developed by Huston. The equations are integrated numerically for a number of specific cases where experimental data are available. Results show excellent agreement between the model and the experiments. The results of several accident simulations are also presented.     

Checking the Assumptions of Rasch's Model for Speed Tests

Two new tests for a model for the response times on pure speed tests by Rasch (1960) are proposed. The model is based on the assumption that the test response times are approximately gamma distributed, with known index parameters and unknown rate parameters. The rate parameters are decomposed in a subject ability parameter and a test difficulty parameter. By treating the ability as a gamma distributed random variable, maximum marginal likelihood (MML) estimators for the test difficulty parameters and the parameters of the ability distribution are easily derived. Also the model tests proposed here pertain to the framework of MML. Two tests or modification indices are proposed. The first one is focused on the assumption of local stochastic independence, the second one on the assumption of the test characteristic functions. The tests are based on Lagrange multiplier statistics, and can therefore be computed using the parameter estimates under the null model. Therefore, model violations for all items and pairs of items can be assessed as a by-product of one single estimation run. Power studies and applications to real data are included as numerical examples.     

Differences Between the Morphology of Gender and Number: Evidence from Establishing Coreferences

This work investigates the processing of gender and number features in the selection of a pronoun antecedent in Italian. In Italian there are instances of nouns in which gender and number are treated morphologically on a par, i.e., overtly and regularly marked by a suffix. In these cases, are the two features also treated similarly in processing? The experiments used sentences with two possible antecedents (differing in gender or number) in the main clause and a pronoun in the complement clause. The sentences were visually presented, with a unimodal lexical decision task at the end of the sentence. The results showed a selective reactivation of the antecedent matching the pronoun in either gender or number. The results are discussed in relation to previous Italian experiments, which found that in sentence internal position there is selective reactivation of only the number-matching antecedent. They are taken to support a model of the coreference processor in which gender and number features are used at different processing stages, due to their different syntactic representation.     

Microcomputer graphics in psychological research

This paper discusses a methodology for psychological instrumentation in which requirements common to a spectrum of experiments are defined and implemented in a microcomputer system. The microcomputer may either stand alone or be used as an intelligent front end to a larger computer. In either case, experiments are described in a high-level implementation language. The advantages of this approach include reduced hardware and maintenance costs, increased reliability, and smoother operation by research personnel. A tutorial example is given of the design and construction of one such system used to present visual stimuli, including text, graphics, and simple animation, on a movable array of video monitors. Displays are produced by a Z80 microcomputer in response to commands from a larger host computer, in this case a PDP Lab/8e. Illustrations are given of three studies in progress; comparisons are made with special-purpose equipment built earlier. The microcomputer system is preferable from both a cost and management point of view.     

An experimental synthesis of the associations and gestalt accounts of the perception of size: Part I

The Associationists state that our everyday impressions of size are a product of past experience. The Gestalt psychologists state that they are immediately or directly given in present experience. The experiment described here suggests that both past and present experience are simultaneously involved, and that a synthesis of the two accounts is required.     

Models of integration given multiple sources of information

Several models of information integration are developed and analyzed within the context of a proto-typical pattern-recognition task. The central concerns are whether the models prescribe maximally efficient (optimal) integration and to what extent the models are psychologically valid. Evaluation, integration, and decision processes are specified for each model. Important features are whether evaluation is noisy, whether integration follows Bayes's theorem, and whether decision consists of a criterion rule or a relative goodness rule. Simulations of the models and predictions of the results by the same models are carried out to provide a measure of identifiability or the extent to which the models can be distinguished from one another. The models are also contrasted against empirical results from tasks with 2 and 4 response alternatives and with graded responses.     

A sharing experience: Development of a group for families affected by HIV infection

The Establishment and Development of a Support Group For the Parents of Children Infected and/or Affected By HIV Infection are Described. The Group is Hospital-based, Meeting Monthyly Since April 1992, Facilitated by Professionals But With A Self-Help and Peer-Support Emphasis. The Planning, Setting and Running of The Group are Explained Changes in Group Membership and the Themes and Processes Which Have Emerged Over the First Year of the Group are Further Explored. Seueral Factors are Identified Which have Contributed to The Success of This Group in Meeting a Part of The Complex Support Needs fo Some Families Living With HIV Infection.     

An odd effect: Lengthened reaction times for judgments about odd digits

Eight experiments are reported that first establish and then explicate a serendipitous finding that judgments about whether digits are odd or even take longer for odd than for even digits. The slowing of judgments about odd digits is more pronounced when digit pairs or triples are used, but is still weakly present when a single digit must be classified. A similar effect is seen when judgments of nouns are based on whether the nouns are the names of living or dead objects. Nouns that name dead objects are judged more slowly than ones that name living objects. The concept "alive" is linguistically marked. Past research has shown that unmarked concepts are processed more rapidly than marked ones. The similarity in the pattern of results when digits and words are judged is used to argue that the slower judgments about odd digits are due to the fact that "odd" is a linguistically marked and "even" a linguistically unmarked concept.     

Toward an action-theoretical model of personality

An action-theoretical model of personality is presented, in which missing links between action-theory and personality constructs are established. Background is the facts, (a) that current psychological theories of action are limited to situation- and action-specific person variables, and (b) that in personality theory systematic relations between such variables and personality constructs are missing. The action-theoretical model of personality is based on a differentiated expectancy-value theory, whose situation-specific constructs (various aspects of valences and expectancies) are logically connected with personality constructs of generalized self-referential cognitions. The following action-theoretical personality variables are proposed to be central for the study of person-situation interactions: (a) self-concept of own competence, (b) control orientations, (c) trust, (d) conceptualization level, and (e) value orientations. The model implies rules for the operationalization of its constructs and for prediction of behaviour. The structure of the action-theoretical personality variables and their relations to other theories of personality are described.     

Note on the selection of a panel of judges so as to maximize panel efficiency

Attempts to develop improved methods of selecting a panel of judges for psychometric work are presented. The applications reported are in the sensory field and are limited to the assumption of a unidimensional ability underlying the judgments in question. Some aspects of cost efficiency are also considered.The writers wish to acknowledge the value of a discussion with Dr. Harold Gulliksen of Princeton University and the Educational Testing Service, Princeton; Dr. Frederic Lord, also of the Educational Testing Service, contributed some valuable criticisms. The writers' thanks are also due Mr. George Bosy, at the Research Laboratories, Kraft Foods Company, where the senior author is currently employed.     

Developing local lifelong guidance strategies

The background, rationale, methodology and outcomes of a project on developing local lifelong guidance strategies in four areas are outlined. The main components of the strategies developed in the four areas are analysed, and a number of issues relating to the process of strategy development are addressed. Much of the lack of coherence at local level stems from lack of coherence at national policy level: implications for national policy are examined. Finally, implications for parallel work in other localities are explored.