Verbal discrimination reversal in a whole/part re-pairing transfer paradigm

Whole/part transfer and re-pairing of rights and wrongs were employed in a study of verbal discrimination reversal learning. The whole/part and re-pairing procedures were used to create reversal conditions (0%, 50%, or 100% reversal) that were similar at the outset of reversal learning in that all correct alternatives on the reversal list were higher in situational frequency than their respective incorrect alternatives. Similarly, reversal lists were constructed that were similar in that all incorrect alternatives on the reversal list were higher in situational frequency than their respective correct alternatives. The results were consistent with the existing literature on verbal discrimination reversal, as performance was impaired when items reversed functions (50% and 100% reversal). There was little evidence that uniform frequency relations between rights and wrongs affected ease of reversal learning.     

The correlation between cue differentiation and associative recall

Two experiments were conducted to correlate performance on a test of cue differentiation with cued recall. In one experiment, subjects were given 2, 5, 8, or 12 study repetitions on verbal items consisting of three-word cues and single-word targets. The cues had varying numbers and patterns of identical elements. Cues were tested for differentiability and for their ability to produce target recall. In the second experiment, study repetitions on the same type of lists were followed by the two tests after the second, fourth, and final study repetitions. With a few exceptions, the frequency of occurrence of items that both were successfully differentiated and produced correct recall did not deviate significantly from predictions based on the assumption of independence of the two measures.     

Visual recognition memory in reflective and impulsive children

Twenty-nine reflective and 29 impulsive fifth-grade boys were tested in a forced-choice visual recognition memory task. In three of the experimental conditions (1FD, 2FD, 4FD) the number of visual feature differences between the correct and incorrect test stimuli was 1, 2, or 4, and correct response could not be based on the name of the stimulus; in the fourth condition (DO) the correct and incorrect test stimuli had different names. As predicted, performance on DO and 4FD was equivalent and was superior to that on 1FD and 2FD. Although reflective Ss made more correct responses than impulsive Ss in all four conditions, only the performance difference in Condition 1FD was significant. Mean correct response latencies mirrored the correct response data. These results were consistent with the Selfridge-Neisser feature-testing model of recognition memory, and it was argued that the primary underlying basis for the dimension of reflection-impulsivity was that reflective Ss tend to engage in a more detailed visual feature analysis of stimulus arrays. Strong inferential evidence was provided that visual feature analysis independent of verbal labeling was responsible for successful recognition performance in these Ss.     

Cue selection in verbal discrimination learning of retarded subjects.

A series of experiments was conducted to examine cue function in trigram verbal discrimination learning by retarded subjects. The issue was to determine the factors that control attention in this type of learning situation. The two variables of chief interest were trigram meaningfulness and reinforcement history. The major general conclusion was that retarded subjects employ complex cue selection strategies in solving a verbal discrimination involving compound verbal stimuli. Major findings were as follows: (a) Retarded subjects exhibit a response bias in favor of words over nonsense trigrams; (b) relatively little active cue selection based on meaningfulness was observed; (c) a compound stimulus discrimination was more difficult to learn than a discrimination involving single verbal stimuli; (d) compound and single stimuli may be processed differently in original discrimination learning; (e) cue position probably controls attention in compound discrimination learning; and (f) a frequency theory of verbal discrimination learning is supported by these data.     

Discrimination learning as a function of differences in materials: A proposed explanation

The present study affords an explanation for the consistent, but not always statistically significant, pattern showing superior verbal discrimination learning performance for low- as compared to high-frequency words. In a frequency judgment task, it was found that relative to high-frequency words, low-frequency words for which Ss (sixth graders) knew the meanings produced apparent frequency measures consistent with superior verbal discrimination learning, while low-frequency words that were unknown to the children did not. These results, taken together with those based on comparisons of pictures and high-frequency words, lend themselves to a modified Weber’s law interpretation of stimulus material differences in discrimination learning.     

Cue use by foals (Equus caballus) in a discrimination learning task

Discrimination learning studies suggest that horses learn more easily using spatial than visible object-specific (OS) cues. However, spatial cues have generally confounded intra-array, distal and/or egocentric spatial information. It is also unclear whether conflicting cues compete for association or are redundantly encoded, and furthermore, the influence of prior experiences or training has not been quantified so far. We examined the effect of cue modality on unweaned foals’ performance in a discrimination learning task. After a pilot study confirmed that horses could perform the required OS cue discrimination, nine foals learnt to find food in one of three covered buckets, in any of four positions within a test arena. In Stage 1 the rewarded bucket was signified both by OS cues (pattern) and by relative spatial cues (position). On reaching criterion, cues were separated and foals had to ignore the inappropriate cue (Stage 2). Foals assigned to follow spatial cues (n = 5) completed Stage 2 faster than foals for whom OS cues remained consistent (n = 4). Spatial group foals all reached criterion without delay; no foal in the OS group reached criterion within the testing period. OS group foals initially persisted in responding to the previously correct position, adopting spatially-based strategies when this proved unsuccessful. The findings show for the first time that, even in the absence of distal spatial information, intra-array spatial cues were more salient than OS cues for foals in a food-finding task and learning appeared rather inflexible.     

Serial order effects in auditory discrimination by oddity and matching to sample

The oddity method and several matching-to-sample procedures were used for frequency and intensity discrimination by adult Ss. For all sequence tasks involving three choices, the Ss employed a decision strategy which resulted in a pattern of correctness that differed from the pattern of discriminability among the choice sounds. It was concluded that the use of signal detection theory for analysis of results had added an important dimension to the study, and it was recommended that this method of analysis be used in further attempts to relate sequential processes to various forms of verbal impairment.     

Imagery and sentence mediators in verbal discrimination learning

The effect of instructions to use imagery and sentence strategies in verbal discrimination learning (VDL) was investigated in two experiments. In Experiment I, both imaging to and constructing a sentence for the correct item of each pair facilitated VDL relative to an uninstructed control condition. Incorporating both words of the pair into a compound image or compound sentence had no effect, a result that was replicated in Experiment It. Of the two compound instructions, only compound sentences consistently facilitated associative recall of the VDL pairs, suggesting that compound imagery instructions were not always adhered to by the Ss.     

The role of video in facilitating perception and action of a novel coordination movement

Two groups (n = 10 in each) practiced a novel, bimanual coordination pattern that was demonstrated on video. One of the groups received augmented video feedback of their own responses after each trial following a demonstration. The video-feedback group showed better performance in acquisition and retention than the no-feedback group. On error-detection tests, the video-feedback group was better able to distinguish between correct and incorrect movement patterns. The authors concluded that video feedback helps to make relative phase information salient by aiding the discrimination process. Prepractice ability on a scanning task revealed that individuals who persevered with in-phase-type movements, even though the task demands dictated otherwise, had the most difficulty determining and subsequently performing the required movement. Video feedback helped them to compensate for those difficulties.     

Priming cue encoding by manipulating transition frequency in explicitly cued task switching

Explicitly cued task switching with multiple cues per task permits three types of transitions: cue repetitions (cue and task repeat), task repetitions (cue changes but task repeats), and task alternations (cue and task change). The difference between task alternations and task repetitions can be interpreted as a switch cost, but its magnitude varies substantially across experiments. We investigated how switch cost is affected by transition frequency (how often subjects repeat and switch tasks) with an experiment in which each transition had a frequency of .70 in separate sessions. Switch cost was smallest when task alternations were frequent and largest when task repetitions were frequent. Mathematical modeling of the data indicated that the different “switch costs” reflected priming of cue encoding for frequent transitions. Interpretations of our findings based on automatic priming from memory retrieval of past transitions and strategic priming from transition expectancies are discussed.     

The Role of Video in Facilitating Perception and Action of a Novel Coordination Movement

Two groups (n = 10 in each) practiced a novel, bimanual coordination pattern that was demonstrated on video. One of the groups received augmented video feedback of their own responses after each trial following a demonstration. The video-feedback group showed better performance in acquisition and retention than the no-feedback group. On error-detection tests, the video-feedback group was better able to distinguish between correct and incorrect movement patterns. The authors concluded that video feedback helps to make relative phase information salient by aiding the discrimination process. Prepractice ability on a scanning task revealed that individuals who persevered with inphase-type movements, even though the task demands dictated otherwise, had the most difficulty determining and subsequently performing the required movement. Video feedback helped them to compensate for those difficulties.     

Precategorical acoustic storage for vowels of short and long duration

Ss gave immediate ordered recall for series of seven isolated vowel sounds from a vocabulary of three-/a, u, i/. In a 2 by 2 design, the stimulus vowels were either 50 or 300 msec in duration (though always presented at a 2/sec rate), and the seven-item series was followed by either a nonverbal recall cue or a verbal recall cue that is a stimulus suffix. There was an interaction such that the recall impairment caused by the verbal suffix was larger when the stimulus items were vowels of long duration than when they were vowels of short duration. Since short vowels tend to be more categorically perceived than long vowels, this result reinforces the view that vowels and stop consonants are differently represented in auditory short-term memory for reasons that have to do with the way m winch they are perceived or vice versa.     

Visual discrimination learning with a 1-min delay of reward

Eight rats were successfully trained in a black-white discrimination with a 1-min delay of reward. The procedure was unusual in that the rat spent the delay outside the apparatus in its home cage. Immediately after the rat responded, whether correctly or incorrectly, it was removed from the choice compartment and placed in its home cage. When the delay ended, it was returned to the startbox. If the preceding response had been correct, the rat received a reward of sugar water; otherwise, it was allowed to make another choice response. Mediation by external cues was excluded because there was no difference in the way the rats were treated after a correct or an incorrect response until the delay interval ended. Mediation by proprioceptive stimuli was excluded because position was an irrelevant cue.     

No pain no gain: The positive impact of punishment on the strategic regulation of accuracy

Previous studies have shown that punishing people through a large penalty for volunteering incorrect information typically leads them to withhold more information (metacognitive response bias), but it does not appear to influence their ability to distinguish between their own correct and incorrect answers (metacognitive accuracy discrimination). The goal of the current study was to demonstrate that punishing people for volunteering incorrect information—versus rewarding volunteering correct information—produces more effective metacognitive accuracy discrimination. All participants completed three different general-knowledge tests: a reward test (high points for correct volunteered answers), a baseline test (equal points/penalties for volunteered correct/incorrect answers) and a punishment test (high penalty for incorrect volunteered answers). Participants were significantly better at distinguishing between their own correct and incorrect answers on the punishment than reward test, which has implications for situations requiring effective accuracy monitoring.     

Human sensory dominance

Human Ss matched an auditory and a visual stimulus for subjective magnitude. Then each stimulus was used as a cue in a reaction time task. On occasions when both stimuli were presented simultaneously, Ss’ responding was seen to be dominated by the visual stimulus. Of further interest was the finding that on some occasions of simultaneous light-tone presentation Ss were unaware that the tone had been presented. This apparent prepotency of the visual over the auditory stimulus was seen to persist across a variety of experimental conditions, which included giving Ss verbal instructions to respond to the tone when both stimuli were presented simultaneously.     

Can characters be classified directly as digits vs letters or must they be identified first?

Two experiments were addressed to the question of whether or not Ss can distinguish between letters and digits without identifying the characters. In Experiment I Ss attempted to identify noisy characters; a character was said to be implicitly classified correctly if the identification response, whether correct or incorrect, was in the same category vis-a-vis the letter-digit distinction as the stimulus. Implicit classification of characters for which the identification response was incorrect was very little better than chance. The task in Experiment II was to classify the characters directly. The explicit classification performance in this case was poorer than the implicit classification performance of Experiment I. The results were taken as evidence that Ss could not distinguish between letters and digits unless they could identify the characters.     

Labeling and family resemblance in the discrimination of polymorphous categories by pigeons

Two experiments examined whether pigeons discriminate polymorphous categories on the basis of a single highly predictive feature or overall similarity. In the first experiment, pigeons were trained to discriminate between categories of photographs of complex real objects. Within these pictures, single features had been manipulated to produce a highly salient texture cue. Either the picture or the texture provided a reliable cue for discrimination during training, but in probe tests, the picture and texture cues were put into conflict. Some pigeons showed a significant tendency to discriminate on the basis of the picture cue (overall similarity or family resemblance), whereas others appeared to rely on the manipulated texture cue. The second experiment used artificial polymorphous categories in which one dimension of the stimulus provided a completely reliable cue to category membership, whereas three other dimensions provided cues that were individually unreliable but collectively provided a completely reliable basis for discrimination. Most pigeons came under the control of the reliable cue rather than the unreliable cues. A minority, however, came under the control of single dimensions from the unreliable set. We conclude that cue salience can be more important than cue reliability in determining what features will control behavior when multiple cues are available.     

Alphabetic sequence decisions for letter pairs with separations of one to three letters.

The alphabet storage and retrieval theory of Klahr, Chase, and Lovelace (1983) was tested for applicability to letter-order decisions. Ss judged whether letter pairs with sequential separations of 1, 2, or 3 letters were in correct or incorrect order. Ss made decisions either in a continuous- or intermittent-attention mode. The results for alphabetic letter-order decisions with a letter separation of 1 were in conformance with the theory of Klahr et al. in both attention modes. However, at letter separations of 2 and 3 letters, Ss made decisions that were more compatible with a symbolic-distance mechanism. Speculation on how Ss could make alphabetic-order decisions in either a memory-consultation or a symbolic-distance manner is made.     

The costs of racism for marriage: how racial discrimination hurts, and ethnic identity protects, newlywed marriages among Latinos

The experience of racial or ethnic discrimination is a salient and severe stressor that has been linked to numerous disparities in important outcomes. Yet, the link between perceived discrimination and marital outcomes has been overlooked by research on relationship stressors. The current study examined this link and tested whether ethnic identity buffered the relation between discrimination and ratings of marital quality and verbal aggression. A sample of 330 Latino newlyweds completed measures of perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, spouse's verbal aggression, and marital quality. Each spouse's interviewer also independently rated marital quality. Dyadic analyses revealed that husbands' experience of discrimination negatively predicted wives' marital quality, but only for husbands with weak ethnic identity. Wives whose husbands had strong ethnic identity were buffered from this effect. Identity also buffered the relation between husbands' discrimination and verbal aggression toward their wives, and this effect mediated the association between discrimination, identity, and marital quality.