Parallel processing in item recognition

It is shown that in Sternberg’s item recognition task Ss need not make a judgment of the absolute size or color of the test item before comparing it with memory. However, Ss do use size or color information, when possible, to reduce long reaction times for large memory loads. The results suggest that Ss are able to scan memory for form in parallel with testing for gross stimulus features, like size or color. This finding has important implications for sequential two-stage theories of attention.     

ROC parameters in item and context recognition

Conflicting theories argue that recognition is achieved either by familiarity exclusively, or by a mixture of familiarity and recollection. We explore in three experiments the goodness of fit of both positions to experimental data in which context information is manipulated. In Experiments 1 and 2, we explore the availability of context information in recognition, testing the focus stimulus, its context, and their associative relation. In Experiment 3, participants were confronted with a plurality task in an attempt to force them to use the peripheral information in recognition. The results show that people acquire specific associative information, and although overall recognition performance was not affected by the use of context, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that people use a duality of processes in recognition.     

Disproportionate deficit in associative recognition relative to item recognition in global amnesia

In two experiments, we tested the hypothesis that medial temporal lobe (MTL) amnesic patients and, likewise, diencephalic (DNC) amnesic patients evidence a disproportionate deficit in memory for associations in comparison with memory for single items. In Experiment 1, we equated item recognition in amnesic and control participants and found that, under these conditions, associative recognition remained impaired both for MTL patients and for DNC patients. To rule out an alternative interpretation of the results of Experiment 1, in Experiment 2 we compared the performance of amnesic and control participants on a one-item recognition task and a two-item recognition task that required no memory for the association between members of word pairs. In the MTL group, when single-item recognition was equated to that of the controls, two-item nonassociative pair memory was equivalent as well. In the DNC group, nonassociative pair memory was impaired, but this impairment did not fully account for the impairment in associative memory. These findings indicate that memory for novel associations between items is disproportionately impaired in comparison with memory for single items in amnesia.     

Word frequency effects in associative and item recognition

The word frequency effect (WFE) has been taken as evidence that recall and recognition are in some way fundamentally different. Consequently, most models assume that recall and recognition operate via very different retrieval mechanisms. Experiment 1 showed that the WFE reverses for associative recognition, which requires discrimination between intact test pairs and recombinations of study list words from different study pairs. Experiment 2, in which word triples were used, revealed an interaction between word frequency and test type: for item recognition, performance was better for low-frequency words; however, for associative recognition and free recall, performance was better for high-frequency words. In Experiment 3, item recognition was tested: although overall performance was better for low-frequency words, the recognition advantage for items in intact pairs was larger for high-frequency words, suggesting two components in recognition memory. These results imply common mechanisms in recall and recognition. Theoretical implications are discussed within the framework of the SAM model.     

Memory for detail in item versus associative recognition

Some studies have shown that, although repetition increases the familiarity of a stimulus, it does not improve memory for its details. Because memory for associative information is thought to require memory for the details of study presentation, the effects of repetition on associative recognition were examined in the present study. The pattern of results was similar to that found for the recognition of item details: Repetition increased the familiarity of the individual items within each pair to a greater extent than it improved memory for their specific pairings.     

Familiarity and recollection in item and associative recognition

Recognition memory for item information (single words) and associative information (word pairs) was tested immediately and after retention intervals of 30 min and 1 day (Experiment 1) and 2 days and 7 days (Experiment 2) using Tulving's (1985) remember/know response procedure. Associative recognition decisions were accompanied by more "remember" responses and less "know" responses than item recognition decisions. Overall recognition performance and the proportion of remember responses declined at similar rates for item and associative information. The pattern of results for item recognition was consistent with Donaldson's (1996) single-factor signal detection model of remember/know responses, as comparisons based on A' between overall item recognition and remember item recognition showed no significant differences. For associative recognition, however, A' for remember responses was reliably greater than for overall recognition. The results show that recollection plays a significant role in associative recognition.     

Retrieval-induced forgetting occurs in tests of item recognition

Using the retrieval-practice paradigm (Anderson, R. A. Bjork, & E. L. Bjork, 1994), we tested whether or not retrieval-induced forgetting could be found in item recognition tests. In Experiment 1, retrieval practice on items from semantic categories depressed recognition of nonpracticed items from the same categories. Similar results were found in Experiment 2 in a more stringent source test for practiced, nonpracticed, and new items. These results conceptually replicate those of previous retrieval-induced forgetting studies done with cued recall (e.g., Anderson et al., 1994). Our findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that item-specific cues during retrieval will eliminate retrieval interference in the retrieval-practice paradigm (Butler, Williams, Zacks, & Maki, 2001). We discuss our results in relation to other retrieval interference and inhibition effects in recall and recognition.     

Age,criterion flexibility,and item recognition

We examined young and older adults' ability to flexibly adapt response criterion on a recognition test when the probability that a test item had been studied was cued by test color. One word color signaled that the probability of the test item being old was 70% and a second color signaled that the probability of the test item being new was 70%. Young and older adults demonstrated similar levels of criterion shifting in response to color cues. Moreover, although both young and older adults were slowed when test-item color incorrectly predicted test-item status, the extent of slowing did not differ across age group. Putative measures of cognitive control predicted recognition accuracy but not the degree to which criterion changed with test-item color. These results suggest that adaptive criterion shifting does not tax cognitive control or, if it does require effort, may be no more onerous for older than for young adults.     

When item recognition and visual search functions are similar

The effect of prolonged practice upon item recognition performance was investigated under conditions of nested positive sets and complete response consistency. Nesting is defined by each positive set containing all the items contained in smaller positive sets. Response consistency is defined by each item in the stimulus set consistently requiring only a positive or only a negative response. A low error level was maintained. Twelve Ss worked with three positive set sizes in each of 36 sessions. Half the Ss worked with digit stimuli and half with pictures. The item recognition function (that function relating response latency and positive set size) was found to be negatively accelerated throughout the course of practice. The effect of positive set size decreased significantly (p < .001) with practice, and set size effects were significantly (p < .03) greater for positive response trials than for negative response trials. Kind of item had no effect on the set size effect. A theoretical framework consistent with these results is suggested. Results from the present study are compared with findings obtained previously from visual search studies. It is concluded that when the procedures in both tasks include response consistency, nested positive sets, and low error levels, the effects of prolonged practice upon the set size from item recognition and visual search are qualitatively very similar.     

When visual search functions look like item recognition functions

Visual search data were collected from six Ss on three target set sizes on each of 30 days. Error level was low, and items assigned to memory sets were nonnested and changed from session tosession. For each S. the same item sometimes required a positive and sometimes a negative response (response inconsistency). Combining data over Ss and over successive 6-day blocks, visual search rates as a function of target set size were found to be linear for each of the five 6-day blocks. The slopes of the above functions (memory search time) did not differ significantly over the final four 6-day blocks, and averaged approximately.500 sec per six-character item. These results are qualitatively very similar to results obtained from item recognition studies when error level, memory set structure, degree of response’_ consistency, and practice are handled in the same way in that task. The significantly lower slope obtained on the first 6-day block is shown to be consistent with a speed-accuracy trade off interpretation when error rate is expressed per unit of processing time (percent errors/set size). Over the final three 6-day blocks, where all important parameters ofthe data were highly stable, the intercepts of the memory search functions were found to closely approximate zero, averaging .0068 sec. From this finding, along with the finding that the memory search functions are linear, it is inferred that visual search time is determined entirely by memory search time, or by memory search time and other processes which increase linearly with set size, under the conditions of this experiment. The estimate of memory search time (approximately 83 msec/character) obtained using this visual search procedure is much slower than that obtained using the item recognition procedure (approximately 35\2-40 msec/character). An explanation for this difference is proposed.     

Capacity limits in list item recognition: evidence from proactive interference

Capacity limits in short-term recall were investigated using proactive interference (PI) from previous lists in a speeded-recognition task. PI was taken to indicate that the target list length surpassed working memory capacity. Unlike previous studies, words were presented either concurrently or sequentially and a new method was introduced to increase the amount of PI. On average, participants retrieved about four items without PI. We suggest an activation-based account of capacity limits.     

从整合的角度看联结记忆中的项目再认

联结记忆由三种成分构成：项目1, 项目2以及项目1-项目2之间的联结, 其中, 对项目1和项目2的再认称之为项目再认, 而对项目1-项目2之间联结的再认称之为联结再认。双加工理论认为项目再认可以由熟悉性和回想加工来完成, 而联结再认只能由回想加工来完成。但近期有大量的研究发现：当要学习的项目对被整合为一个新的整体表征时, 熟悉性也能够支持联结再认。而关于整合对联结记忆中项目再认的研究较少, 总结已有研究提出两种观点：一种是“只有受益”观点(benefits-only)认为整合在增加联结再认的同时不影响项目再认; 另一种是“收支平衡”观点(costs and benefits)认为整合增加联结再认是以牺牲项目再认为代价的。未来研究应该关注整合对联结记忆中项目再认的影响及其神经机制, 了解整合对联结再认和项目再认的具体作用, 有助于针对具体记忆任务选择合适的编码方式来提高记忆表现。     

Question order bias in retrospective evaluations of item and associative recognition

Previous research has demonstrated a retrospective memory bias in metacognitive judgments regarding performance on general knowledge questions: Test-takers rate their own performance more optimistically when tests begin with easy questions than when tests begin with hard questions. An anchoring heuristic has been proposed to explain this finding, in which experience with the early questions constrains global performance evaluations of the test. In the current study we report on two experiments using tasks of item recognition and associative recognition to investigate the generality of question order bias. As predicted by an anchoring explanation, participants’ estimates of performance were higher for item recognition tests beginning with easy items. However, the effect was reversed in the associative recognition task: Participants’ estimates of performance were higher for tests beginning with hard items. Specific recollections, if present, may have a greater impact on test performance perception than more general global impressions.     

The role of familiarity in item recognition, associative recognition, and plurality recognition on self-paced and speeded tests

Four experiments compare the effect of familiarity on item, associative, and plurality recognition on self-paced and speeded tests. The familiarity of test items was enhanced by presenting a prime that matched the subsequent test item. On item and plurality recognition tests, participants were more likely to respond "old" to primed than to unprimed test items. In associative recognition, priming increased the proportion of old responses on a speeded test, but not on a self-paced test. This suggests that familiarity plays a larger role in item and plurality recognition than in associative recognition on self-paced tests. On speeded tests, priming has a similar effect on item, associative, and plurality recognition. Results suggest that item and associative recognition rely differentially on familiarity and recollection. They are also consistent with recent evidence suggesting that different processes underlie plurality and associative recognition.     

Revisiting the role of recollection in item versus forced-choice recognition memory

Many memory theorists have assumed that forced-choice recognition tests can rely more on familiarity, whereas item (yes-no) tests must rely more on recollection. In actuality, several studies have found no differences in the contributions of recollection and familiarity underlying the two different test formats. Using word frequency to manipulate stimulus characteristics, the present study demonstrated that the contributions of recollection to item versus forced-choice tests is variable. Low word frequency resulted in significantly more recollection in an item test than did a forced-choice procedure, but high word frequency produced the opposite result. These results clearly constrain any uniform claim about the degree to which recollection supports responding in item versus forced-choice tests.     

Capacity limits in list item recognition: Evidence from proactive interference

Capacity limits in short‐term recall were investigated using proactive interference (PI) from previous lists in a speeded‐recognition task. PI was taken to indicate that the target list length surpassed working memory capacity. Unlike previous studies, words were presented either concurrently or sequentially and a new method was introduced to increase the amount of PI. On average, participants retrieved about four items without PI. We suggest an activation‐based account of capacity limits.     

Toward a complete decision model of item and source recognition

In a recognition memory test, subjects may be asked to decide whether a test item is old or new (item recognition) or to decide among alternative sources from which it might have been drawn for study (source recognition). Confidence-rating-based receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for these superficially similar tasks are quite different, leading to the inference of correspondingly different decision processes. A complete account of source and item recognition will require a single model that can be fit to the entire data set. We postulated a detection-theoretic decision space whose dimensions, in the style of Banks (2000), are item strength and the relative strengths of the two sources. A model that assumes decision boundaries of constant likelihood ratios, source guessing for unrecognized items, and nonoptimal allocation of attention can account for data from three canonical data sets without assuming any processes specifically devoted to recollection. Observed and predicted ROCs for one of these data sets are given in the article, and ROCs for the other two may be downloaded from the Psychonomic Society’s Archive of Norms, Stimuli, and Data, www.psychonomic.org/archive.     

Reflections of the mirror effect for item and associative recognition

In five experiments, participants studied pairs of words and yes/no recognition memory for both item and associative information was tested. Two stimulus manipulations, nouns versus nonnouns and high versus low word concreteness, produced the mirror effect for both item and associative recognition. The mirror effect was reflected in both measures of accuracy and response latency. A word frequency manipulation, however, produced the mirror effect only for item recognition. Two additional experiments showed that the mirror effect could also be obtained between nouns and nonnouns and between high and low concrete words for associative recognition in a forced-choice recognition procedure. The results extend the generality of the mirror effect to measures of response latency and to associative recognition and also suggest that similar retrieval and decision processes underlie recognition of item and associative information.     

The extralist-feature effect: evidence against item matching in short-term recognition memory

The authors varied the similarity between negative probes and study items in a short-term item-recognition task. Current models treat similarity as a function of the number of occurrences of the probe's features in the study set, a factor that is often confounded with the number of the probe's features occurring in the study set. Unconfounded comparisons showed that performance reflected only the latter factor, with response time a linear function of the number of probe features in the study set. The effect was obtained for both stimuli with manipulated features (colored shapes) and words. Number of presented features is a global property of the study list, but existing global models calculate familiarity by averaging across item matches and cannot readily accommodate the data. The authors proposed that the probe's features are compared with a global representation of the study set's features.     

Effects of same-category and different-category extraneous memory sets on item recognition

In a study designed to distinguish between parallel and serial models of performance on Sternberg’s item recognition task, Krueger (1975) presented subjects with a memory set (the “added” set) followed by a second (“core”) set, a probe to the core set, and finally a probe to the added set. Response latency (RT) to both the core- and added-set probes initially increased with the size of the extraneous set. Over successive blocks of trials, the effect of the size of the extraneous set diminished. In Experiment 1 of the present study, Krueger’s basic procedures were replicated with results similar to those he reported for early trials. Experiment 2 was a variation on the added-set procedure. Rather than the memory sets’ being drawn from different categories (letters and digits), both sets consisted of digits. On half of the negative trials for both the core and the added tasks, the probe was drawn from the extraneous set, forcing the subjects to separate the two sets. Although RT on the core task did not increase with the size of the added set, there was an increase in RT to the added set with increases in core-set size, a finding inconsistent with the serial search model