Developmental Study of the Reversed Stroop Effect in Chinese-English Bilinguals

Chinese-English bilinguals in Grades 2, 4, 8, 10, and in college read Chinese and English color words in black or in colored print in the corresponding language. Subjects were more efficient in reading Chinese than English. This superiority effect of reading Chinese gradually decreased as subjects' familiarity with English increased. Furthermore, skilled readers were less susceptible than less skilled readers to the introduction of conflicting colors of ink. This result indicates that the pattern of the reversed Stroop (1935; Dunbar & MacLeod, 1984) effect is related to the proficiency of word processing.     

汉—英并列双语者图片命名的重复启动效应

使用图片命名的重复启动范式来考察同一语种内和不同语种间条件下图片的重复呈现对词汇生成的启动效应。结果表明,语种内重复启动显著大于语种间重复启动,汉、英语种内重复启动效应无显著差异;语种间条件下两种语言间的重复启动存在不对称性,汉语—英语的启动大于英语—汉语的启动。实验结果支持词汇/概念分布模型。     

熟练汉-英双语者的语码切换机制—— 来自短语水平的证据

以熟练汉-英双语者为被试, 考察了在短语水平上语码切换的机制及切换代价的来源。结果表明：(1)汉语与英语表示空间方所的短语的差异和表示量的短语的对应与否影响语码切换过程, 但对于两种语言的切换代价的影响不显著, 表明语码切换代价未受特定语言的语法特征影响; (2)熟练汉-英双语者在短语水平上表现出语码切换代价的不对称性：切换至熟练语言的代价比切换至非熟练语言的代价大; (3)熟练汉-英双语者的切换代价源于两种语言短语的激活和竞争, 支持非特定语言选择假说, 可以用抑制控制模型来解释。整个研究表明, 熟练双语者的语码切换代价源于语言表征系统之外。     

Stroop interference: Hemispheric difference in Chinese speakers

Some recent studies have demonstrated that the processing of color is favored by the nondominant hemisphere in English-speaking subjects. Single Chinese logographs in Japanese- as well as Chinese-speaking subjects are similarly favored. In the present study, it was hypothesized that more Stroop interference would occur in the nondominant hemisphere because the two processes involved in the Stroop effect (i.e., reading logographs and naming colors) are possibly localized in that hemisphere in Chinese-speaking subjects. Eighteen right-handed Chinese-English bilinguals were used as subjects. There were three conditions in each visual field: Interference, reading, and naming. Each slide was presented for 150 msec preceded by a fixation dot. Subjects were asked to verbally report as fast and as accurately as possible either the color words or the color names, depending upon the condition. Reaction times and error rates were analyzed. As expected, more Stroop interference was obtained when color words were presented in the left visual field. This result is in direct contrast with that of Y-C. Tsao, T. Feustel, and C. Soseos 1979, Brain and Language, 8, 367–371. In that study, more Stroop interference was obtained when the materials were presented in the right visual field in English-speaking subjects.     

Recall and articulation of English and Chinese words by Chinese-English bilinguals

Three groups of subjects were tested to investigate the effect of language on the relationship between recall span and articulation rate. Native English-speaking monolinguals and native Chinese-speaking monolinguals recalled only English or Chinese words, respectively. Chinese-English bilinguals recalled both English and Chinese words. Articulation rates for English and Chinese monolinguals and Chinese-English bilinguals in each language were also obtained. When recall span was regressed on articulation rate, the slopes for Chinese and English words were significantly different for the Chinese-English bilinguals. This difference was not due to language proficiency but to phonological differences between English and Chinese.     

外语焦虑、紧张情绪与认知负荷对外语说谎的影响：来自中-英双语者的证据

采用错误陈述范式探究中-英双语者用母语和外语说真话和说谎时的认知神经差异, 涉及外语焦虑、认知负荷和说谎诱发的紧张情绪。对P200和CNV观察发现：(1)中-英双语者用英语说真话的P200波幅比用母语大, 说明被试用英语说话时受外语焦虑情绪影响; (2)中-英双语者用英语说谎与说真话的P200波幅无显著差异, 但用母语说谎和讲真话的P200波幅差异显著, 说明被试用外语说谎没有用母语说谎诱发的紧张情绪大; (3)中-英双语者说谎时的CNV波幅比说真话时大, 说明被试说谎比说真话的认知负荷更大; (4)中-英双语者用英语说谎时的CNV波幅比用汉语说谎时大, 说明被试用外语说谎比用母语说谎产生了更大的认知负荷。相关分析表明, 英语熟练程度是影响中-英双语者用母语和外语说谎时的认知神经差异的重要变量。     

汉-英和藏-汉-英双语者中、英文语码切换及代价研究

以汉—英和藏—汉—英双语者为被试,采用真假词判断范式,探讨中文和英文语码切换及代价。结果表明:(1)汉—英和藏—汉—英双语者中文语码切换代价不显著,英文语码切换代价显著;(2)汉—英和藏—汉—英双语者中、英文词加工差异显著,但语码切换趋势相同。这表明,加工方式和策略影响语言加工,不影响语码切换;语言熟练程度影响语码切换,两种语言的相对熟练程度决定切换代价的不对称性。     

非熟练双语者言语产生中非目标语言的激活范围

采用图-图干扰范式来考察非熟练中-英双语者言语产生中非目标语言的激活范围。实验1探讨用汉语命名时,干扰图的英语名称能否得以激活。结果发现,干扰图的词汇熟悉度高时,音译词的反应时显著长于音韵无关词,而熟悉度低时,二者无显著差异,说明在一语的产生过程中只能激活二语中高熟悉的非目标词。实验2探讨用英语命名时,干扰图的汉语名称能否激活。结果发现,不论熟悉度高还是低,音译词的反应时均显著长于音韵无关词,说明在二语的产生过程中会激活一语中的非目标词。总的结果说明,非熟练中-英双语者在言语产生过程中非目标语言中的非目标词也会激活,并且激活范围既受非目标语言的熟练程度的影响,也受非目标词熟悉度的影响。     

Performance of bilinguals in a picture-word interference task

The picture-word interference task was administered to Spanish-English adults in order to determine whether the lexicons of bilinguals are integrated or whether words are stored and accessed separately in semantic memory. Pictures were printed with Spanish words naming other objects, with English translations, and with X's. Spanish and English distractor words were observed to slow down picture naming in both languages. Also, an interaction was detected among subjects naming pictures in English. On the first trial Spanish words produced more interference than English words, whereas the pattern was reversed thereafter. This effect is attributed to task novelty, which disappears with practice. No differential patterns of interference were observed among subjects naming pictures in Spanish, probably because of greater error variance. Results for English picture-naming bilinguals supported the integration hypothesis but suggested that there is less distance between words within a language than between languages in semantic memory.     

An early electrophysiological response associated with expertise in letter perception

Expertise with print is likely to optimize visual processes for recognizing characters of a familiar writing system. Although brain activations have been identified for words and letter strings in contrast with other stimuli, relatively little work has focused on the neural basis of single-letter perception. English readers and Chinese-English bilinguals participated in an ERP study and performed a 1-back identity judgment on Roman letters, Chinese characters, pseudofonts, and their string versions. The Chinese-English bilinguals showed an enhanced N170 for both Roman letters and Chinese characters relative to pseudofonts. For the non-Chinese readers, the N170 amplitude was larger for Roman letters relative to Chinese characters and pseudofonts. Our results suggest that changes in relatively early visual processes underlie expert letter perception.     

语言转换对非熟练双语者不同认知控制成分的即时影响

语言转换情境是否影响非熟练双语者的认知控制存在争议。实验1和实验2分别采用不同的实验范式探讨语言转换对非熟练双语者的认知控制是否会有即时的影响, 以及对不同认知控制成分的影响是否会有不同。结果表明, 语言转换情境能够即时地促进反应抑制, 阻碍干扰抑制, 但对认知灵活性没有影响, 同时说明了反应抑制、干扰抑制和认知灵活性属于3种不同的认知成分, 其内在作用机制不同。此外, 研究结果还进一步说明了双语者的认知控制优势是双语者长期双语使用的结果, 为双语优势的内在机制提供了实验支持。     

非熟练中-英双语者跨语言的错误记忆通道效应

采用DRM范式以112名非熟练中-英双语者为被试进行了跨语言的错误记忆通道效应实验。实验采用三因素混合设计,根据学习通道和测验通道的不同,把被试分为4组,用由汉语与英语单词组成的DRM词表进行学习和测验。结果发现,⑴在非熟练中-英双语被试中存在错误记忆的跨语言现象;⑵非熟练中-英双语者跨语言的错误记忆存在很强的语言特异性,表现为相同语言条件高于不同语言条件、汉语高于英语;⑶在学习与测验相同语言条件下运用校正的再认分数——敏感性指标Pr,进一步探讨错误记忆的通道效应,发现了跟西方不一致的结论：即无论汉语词表还是英语词表,非熟练中-英双语者在视觉通道上的错误记忆明显高于听觉通道     

高低水平汉英二语者阅读难易英语句子的知觉广度

通过考察高、低水平汉英二语者阅读难易英语句子的知觉广度,本研究发现二语水平和句子难度调节汉英二语者的英语阅读速度,但不影响其阅读知觉广度,均表现为注视词左侧1个词至右侧1个词。该结果表明汉英二语者采用相对固定的注意分配策略来阅读英语,与中央凹加工负荷假说不一致。     

英汉双语者二语口语产生中音韵编码过程的同化机制

本研究运用事件相关电位技术, 结合时空微态分割分析法, 考察英汉双语者二语口语产生过程中音韵编码过程的同化与顺应机制。研究中采用图词干扰即时命名任务, 比较英汉双语者的汉语产生过程中音韵编码的加工单元与汉语母语者的汉语产生过程还是与英语母语者的英语产生过程的特点类似。反应时结果发现汉汉组、英汉组与英英组都出现显著的音节效应。事件相关电位的结果发现英汉双语者的汉语产生过程中出现了音素效应, 与其英语产生过程的特点类似, 音素效应在英语和汉语的产生过程中都出现在图画呈现后的200~250 ms之间, 而汉语母语者的汉语产生过程中仅发现了音节效应, 出现在250~300 ms之间。时空微态分割分析发现英汉双语者在汉语产生的音韵编码过程与英语母语者在英语产生过程所对应的脑电微态成分相同, 仅在持续时间上存在显著差异; 其微态成分不同于汉语母语者的汉语产生过程。上述结果表明英汉双语者汉语产生的音韵编码过程与英语作为母语时的产生过程相似, 而与汉语作为母语时的产生过程不同。英汉双语者的汉语产生过程采用了母语同化机制。     

Chinese translation norms for 1,429 English words

We present Chinese translation norms for 1,429 English words. Chinese-English bilinguals (N = 28) were asked to provide the first Chinese translation that came to mind for 1,429 English words. The results revealed that 71 % of the English words received more than one correct translation indicating the large amount of translation ambiguity when translating from English to Chinese. The relationship between translation ambiguity and word frequency, concreteness and language proficiency was investigated. Although the significant correlations were not strong, results revealed that English word frequency was positively correlated with the number of alternative translations, whereas English word concreteness was negatively correlated with the number of translations. Importantly, regression analyses showed that the number of Chinese translations was predicted by word frequency and concreteness. Furthermore, an interaction between these predictors revealed that the number of translations was more affected by word frequency for more concrete words than for less concrete words. In addition, mixed-effects modelling showed that word frequency, concreteness and English language proficiency were all significant predictors of whether or not a dominant translation was provided. Finally, correlations between the word frequencies of English words and their Chinese dominant translations were higher for translation-unambiguous pairs than for translation-ambiguous pairs. The translation norms are made available in a database together with lexical information about the words, which will be a useful resource for researchers investigating Chinese-English bilingual language processing.     

An encoding-complex approach to numerical cognition in Chinese-English bilinguals.

We present a model of the cognitive architecture of basic numerical skills in adult Chinese-English bilinguals. The model is based on data reported by Campbell, Kanz, and Xue (1999) and combines Dehaene and Cohen's triple-code theory with Campbell and Clark's encoding-complex approach to modeling number processing. Participants were required to name, add or multiply Arabic or Mandarin numerals and to respond in English or Chinese. They also performed magnitude comparisons on pairs of Arabic or Mandarin numerals. The proposed model of their performance on this set of tasks assumes 1) that number processing is modular with respect to representational code (e.g., visual, visuo-spatial, verbal) rather than with respect to numerical function, 2) task-specific communication between representational codes is interactive rather than additive, and 3) memory for arithmetic facts is at least partially language-based and our Chinese-English bilinguals possessed both Chinese and English-language number-fact representations. We provide new analyses of the arithmetic data and a review of research on the role of language in simple arithmetic to substantiate our claims about linguistic codes for number-fact memory.     

Input/output switch in bilingual code switching

Chinese-English bilinguals were asked to read a passage with spontaneous bilingual code switchings, compared with a unilingual Chinese translation of the passage, a unilingual English translation, a translation with random switchings, and a translation with only nouns switched into English. There was no difference between the reading speed for the passage with natural switchings and the unilingual Chinese passage, thus questioning the need to postulate a bilingual imput/output switch. The speed for reading passages with artificial switchings was slower. In a translation task, the naturally switched items required less time in Chinese-to-English translations compared with English-to-Chinese translations. This indicates that in natural code switchings, the English lexical items produced were more available, even though English is generally the weaker language.     

Two faces,two languages: An fMRI study of bilingual picture naming

This fMRI study explores how nonlinguistic cues modulate lexical activation in the bilingual brain. We examined the influence of face race on bilingual language production in a picture-naming paradigm. Chinese–English bilinguals were presented with pictures of objects and images of faces (Asian or Caucasian). Participants named the picture in their first or second language (Chinese or English) in separate blocks. Face race and naming language were either congruent (e.g., naming in Chinese when seeing an Asian face) or incongruent (e.g., naming in English when seeing an Asian face). Our results revealed that face cues facilitate naming when the socio-cultural identity of the face is congruent with the naming language. The congruence effects are reflected as effective integration of lexical and facial cues in key brain regions including IFG, MFG, ACC, and caudate. Implications of the findings in light of theories of language processing and cultural priming are discussed.     

汉语儿童英语口语词汇与阅读学习的关系

以120名四、五年级小学儿童为被试,探讨汉语儿童英语口语词汇与阅读学习的关系,并检验了英语语音意识在其中的中介作用。结果表明:(1)汉语儿童的英语口语词汇与阅读学习之间存在密切关系。控制一般认知能力和母语口语词汇的影响后,英语口语词汇对阅读学习仍具有显著的预测作用。其中,英语口语词汇产生对于英语单词认读的预测作用更重要,英语口语词汇理解则对英语单词理解的预测作用更重要。(2)英语口语词汇产生既可以直接作用于英语单词认读、理解和假词拼读,也部分通过英语语音意识的中介间接作用于英语阅读;英语口语词汇理解对英语单词理解也具有直接作用,并部分地通过英语语音意识的中介发挥间接作用     

Reading and lexicalization in opaque and transparent orthographies: Word naming and word learning in English and Spanish

Do skilled readers of opaque and transparent orthographies make differential use of lexical and sublexical processes when converting words from print to sound? Two experiments are reported, which address that question, using effects of letter length on naming latencies as an index of the involvement of sublexical letter–sound conversion. Adult native speakers of English (Experiment 1) and Spanish (Experiment 2) read aloud four- and seven-letter high-frequency words, low-frequency words, and nonwords in their native language. The stimuli were interleaved and presented 10 times in a first testing session and 10 more times in a second session 28 days later. Effects of lexicality were observed in both languages, indicating the deployment of lexical representations in word naming. Naming latencies to both words and nonwords reduced across repetitions on Day 1, with those savings being retained to Day 28. Length effects were, however, greater for Spanish than English word naming. Reaction times to long and short nonwords converged with repeated presentations in both languages, but less in Spanish than in English. The results support the hypothesis that reading in opaque orthographies favours the rapid creation and use of lexical representations, while reading in transparent orthographies makes more use of a combination of lexical and sublexical processing.