The association of affiliation and achievement personality styles with DSM-IV personality disorders

Investigators from theoretically diverse backgrounds have long described two personality styles associated with depression. The affiliation style describes individuals with interpersonal concerns; the achievement style describes individuals who have concerns with personal failure. Although primarily related to risk for depression, there has also been recognition that extreme forms of these styles are related to personality disorders (PDs). The current study examines the relation between the DSM-IV PDs and the two personality styles, assessing the latter using two approaches: (a) dependency/self-criticism (Blatt, 1974) and (b) sociotropy/autonomy (Beck, 1983). Results show that whereas the achievement style is associated with most PDs (except for the histrionic and dependent PDs), the affiliation style is associated only with histrionic, dependent, and depressive PDs. Controlling for shared PD variance leaves only two associations, affiliation with dependent PD and achievement with narcissistic PD. Results are discussed in the context of current efforts to capture personality psychopathology within a comprehensive dimensional framework.     

Individual differences in resultant achievement motivation and latency to and persistence at an achievement task

Alternative hypotheses generated from the Atkinson (1957) and Atkinson and Feather (1966) risk-taking model of achievement motivation and the Atkinson and Birch (1970) dynamics of action theory comparing groups high and low in resultant achievement motivation (RAM) on latency to and persistence at an achievement task were tested. Subjects who had made two or more atypical shifts (choice of an easier task following success and choice of a more difficult task following failure) during 21 trials of a target-shooting game the first week were classified as low RAM (n=154), and subjects who had made 0 or 1 atypical shift were classified as high RAM (n=155). In week 2 subjects divided their time among two nonachievement tasks and the very easy, easy, intermediate, difficult, or most difficult levels of the achievement task. No main effects or interactions were found when latency to the achievement task was analyzed in a RAM by Difficulty level × Gender individual difference design. High-RAM subjects persisted significantly longer than low-RAM subjects across all conditions. Results are explained using the dynamic concepts of instigation, inhibition, and consummation. Analyses of sequential choices (week 1) among five difficulty levels did not support the Atkinson (1957) explanation of atypical shifts as avoidance of intermediate challenges for low-RAM subjects. Subjects who avoided the target-shooting game the second week more often persisted at the very easy task following success but not at the most difficult task following failure, results that are partially supportive of Feather's (1961) analysis of persistence.I wish to thank Dr. David Reuman, who suggested the research topic; the 24 undergraduate research assistants who ran subjects for this experiment; Rochelle Breitenbach, Laurie Colisanti, Kevin Kurkowski, Lee Ann McHenry, and Brenda Yee, who assisted with the data preparation and analyses; Ann Beck and Randi Gilbert, who provided editorial assistance; and Dr. Tilly Houtmans, who commented on an earlier version of this paper. A paper based on the dynamics of action research was presented at the Nags Head Conference on Motivation and Emotion on June 17, 1990. A paper based on the level of aspiration/achievement motivation results was presented at the Third International Meeting of the Society for the Advancement of Field Theory on September 16, 1988. A copy of the BASIC program for the Apple IIe computer is available to anyone who sends a 5 1/4-inch diskette.     

Thinking aloud performance: Individual consistencies over tasks

Previous research (Gilhooly, 1987) indicated considerable individual consistency in quantity and quality of thinking aloud performance over three 8-puzzle tasks. The present study investigated the consistency of individual thinking aloud performance over two types of tasks. One type was largely spatial (the 8-puzzle) and the other largely verbal (the Poisoned Foods task). Considerable individual consistency in thinking aloud performance was found within each task type and, more importantly, between types of task. Thus, subjects who produced lengthy and complete protocols on the 8-puzzle problems also did so in the Poisoned Foods task. These results are discussed in the context of Ericsson and Simon’s (1984) model of thinking aloud.     

Thinking aloud performance: Individual consistencies over tasks

Previous research (Gilhooly, 1987) indicated considerable individual consistency in quantity and quality of thinking aloud performance over three 8-puzzle tasks. The present study investigated the consistency of individual thinking aloud performance over two types of tasks. One type was largely spatial (the 8-puzzle) and the other largely verbal (the Poisoned Foods task). Considerable individual consistency in thinking aloud performance was found within each task type and, more importantly, between types of task. Thus, subjects who produced lengthy and complete protocols on the 8-puzzle problems also did so in the Poisoned Foods task. These results are discussed in the context of Ericsson and Simon’s (1984) model of thinking aloud.     

The Big Five personality traits, learning styles, and academic achievement

Personality and learning styles are both likely to play significant roles in influencing academic achievement. College students (308 undergraduates) completed the Five Factor Inventory and the Inventory of Learning Processes and reported their grade point average. Two of the Big Five traits, conscientiousness and agreeableness, were positively related with all four learning styles (synthesis analysis, methodical study, fact retention, and elaborative processing), whereas neuroticism was negatively related with all four learning styles. In addition, extraversion and openness were positively related with elaborative processing. The Big Five together explained 14% of the variance in grade point average (GPA), and learning styles explained an additional 3%, suggesting that both personality traits and learning styles contribute to academic performance. Further, the relationship between openness and GPA was mediated by reflective learning styles (synthesis-analysis and elaborative processing). These latter results suggest that being intellectually curious fully enhances academic performance when students combine this scholarly interest with thoughtful information processing. Implications of these results are discussed in the context of teaching techniques and curriculum design.     

Loving styles: relationships with personality and attachment styles

We investigated the ability of the major personality dimensions, some of their underlying facet scales, and attachment styles to predict primary and secondary loving styles, as conceptualized by Lee. Personality was assessed using the International Personality Item Pool, and attachment styles through an inventory devised by Collins and Read. Respondents were 302 undergraduate students (212 females; 90 males) who participated in the study in exchange for course credit. Results of regression path analysis showed that N was the only personality dimension without direct predictive links to loving styles. Instead, the influence of N was through an anxious attachment style. There were no personality predictors of Agape, and similarities were also observed between these results and those obtained in Hong Kong. The results are discussed with reference to previous studies and some suggestions for further research are also noted. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Detecting (in)consistencies in personality: reconciling intuitions and empirical evidence

After Mischel's (1968) critique of the traditional concept of personality, others have attempted to resolve the apparent discrepancy between intuitive (and theoretical) notions of consistency in the behavior patterns of individuals, and the available empirical evidence, much of which seems to suggest that the intuitive/theoretical notions are erroneous. Virtually all of these attempts have been grounded ultimately in some variation of the individual differences paradigm that has long dominated empirical personality research. In contrast, the present article suggests that this apparent discrepancy results from an attempt to reconcile essentially idiographic intuitions with aggregate empirical findings. Going beyond previous conceptual discussions of this point, the present article offers an empirical illustration of the problem, and suggests that the intuitions vs. empirical evidence discrepancy regarding questions of (in)consistencies in personality reflects the "incorrectness" of neither, but rather the fact that the intuitions and empirical evidence speak to fundamentally different questions. The implications of this fact for programmatic, theoretically oriented personality research are emphasized.     

Coping styles and personality: a biometric analysis

Previous research suggests that coping styles are modestly heritable and that this genetic influence is shared in large part with genetic influences on personality. To test this hypothesis, we estimated the heritable basis of the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations in a sample of 91 monozygotic and 80 dizygotic twin pairs. Task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and social diversion coping styles were modestly heritable (h(2)=.17 to .20), whereas the use of distraction appeared to be influenced solely by environmental factors. Multivariate analyses showed that genetic contributions to coping styles were, at best, only modestly related to genetic contributions to personality (r=-.03 to .35). Environmental contributions to personality were unrelated to environmental factors in coping style. These results suggest that coping style is not merely a manifestation of basic personality traits but does support the possibility that the genetic factors in personality influences have a modest influence on an individual's preferred coping style or strength (e.g., rigidity vs flexibility).     

Attachment styles and personality disorders as predictors of symptom course.

Adult attachment styles and personality disorders (PDs) show some conceptual and empirical overlap and both may complicate the course of symptoms among psychiatric patients. In this naturalistic prospective study, 149 patients with affective, anxiety, substance use, and other disorders were interviewed shortly after entering treatment, which included psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, or both. Follow-up interviews were conducted 6 and 12 months later. Attachment styles, DSM-III-R PDs, and symptoms were assessed using structured interviews and consensus ratings. At intake, borderline, avoidant, and dependent PD features correlated consistently with symptom severity and secure attachment correlated inversely with two of four symptom scales. Secure attachment was linked with greater relative improvement in global functioning and a more benign course of anxiety symptoms over 6 months. Borderline PD features predicted less relative improvement of depressive symptoms over 6 months. These findings clarify the relations between attachment styles and PD features and they point to potential mediators of treatment response.     

Employee achievement orientations and personality as predictors of job satisfaction facets

This paper examines the incremental value of achievement orientations (Mastery-Approach; Mastery-Avoid; Performance-Approach; Performance-Avoid), above Extraversion and Neuroticism, in predicting two different types of satisfaction outcomes; expectation-based-job-satisfaction (EX-JS) and satisfaction-with-one’s-own-job-performance (P-JS). Using structural equation modelling, data from 242 UK government body employees showed that only Extraversion shared a (positive) relationship with EX-JS. Whereas, the strongest relations with P-JS were found for Neuroticism and Mastery-Approach with both sharing positive relationships with this satisfaction outcome. Analyses indicated that Mastery-Approach accounted for unique variance in P-JS beyond Extraversion and Neuroticism. Findings show that there is scope for experiences of satisfaction at work to be traced to stable approach competence specific motivational tendencies.     

Decision-making competence in everyday life: The roles of general cognitive styles,decision-making styles and personality

Research indicates that decision-making competence in everyday life is associated with certain decision-making styles. The aims of this article are to extend this research by examining (a) the extent to which general cognitive styles explain variance in decision-making competence over and above decision-making styles, and (b) the extent to which personality explains variance in decision-making competence over and above both types of style variable. Participants (N = 355) completed measures of everyday decision-making competence (Decision Outcomes Inventory), decision styles (Decision Style Questionnaire; Maximization Inventory), cognitive styles (the Cognitive Styles Inventory; Rational-Experience Inventory), and the Big Five personality variables (IPIP Big-Five factor scales). The results indicate that cognitive styles offer no incremental validity over decision-making styles in predicting decision-making competence, but that personality does offer substantial incremental validity over general cognitive styles and decision-making styles. Jointly decision-making styles and personality account for a substantial amount of variance in everyday decision-making competence.     

Identity styles and academic achievement: mediating role of academic self-efficacy

The purpose of this study was to assess the mediating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between identity styles and academic achievement. Four-hundred high school students (200 male, 200 female) who were selected through cluster random sampling, completed the Revised Identity Styles Inventory (ISI, 6G) and Morgan-Jink Student Efficacy Scales (MJSES). Path analysis was used to analyze the data. In general, the results indicated that informational identity style had a positive direct impact on academic achievement, while diffuse/avoidance identity style had a negative effect on academic achievement. Data also suggested that informational and normative identity style had a positive influence on academic achievement through the mediation of academic self-efficacy.

Individual differences in processing styles: validity of the Rational-Experiential Inventory

In Study 1 (N= 203) the factor structure of a Swedish translation of Pacini and Epstein's Rational-Experiential Inventory (REI-40) was investigated using confirmatory factor analysis. The hypothesized model with rationality and experientiality as orthogonal factors had satisfactory fit to the data, significantly better than alternative models (with two correlated factors or a single factor). Inclusion of "ability" and "favorability" subscales for rationality and experientiality increased fit further. It was concluded that the structural validity of the REI is adequate. In Study 2 (N= 72) the REI-factors were shown to have theoretically meaningful correlations to other personality traits, indicating convergent and discriminant validity. Finally, scores on the rationality scale were negatively related to risky choice framing effects in Kahneman and Tversky's Asian disease task, indicating concurrent validity. On the basis of these findings it was concluded that the test has satisfactory psychometric properties.