Profiles of bystanders' motivation to defend school bully victims from a self‐determination perspective

This study was aimed at exploring which latent profiles emerge based on ratings of self‐determined motivation to defend victims of bullying, and to explore if they are related to bystander roles and victimization in bullying, as well as student–teacher relations. Data were collected from 1,800 Swedish and Italian students, with an age range between 10 and 18 years (M = 12.6, standard deviation = 1.74). The students completed a survey in their classrooms. Latent profile analysis was used to explore the possible clusters of individuals with similar ratings on the motivational variables. Multivariate analysis of variances were conducted to explore differences between the profiles in relation to their roles when witnessing bullying and to student–teacher relationships. Four latent profiles emerged. The profiles represented respondents (a) high in prosocial motivation, (b) high in externally extrinsic motivation, (c) intermediate in externally extrinsic motivation, and (d) with identified/introjected motivation. Multivariate analyses showed that reports of bystander roles when witnessing bullying, teacher–student relationships, and bullying victimization, significantly differed over the motivational profiles. The bystanders were unevenly distributed across the four groups and most individuals were categorized in the prosocial motivation group. Female and male bystanders were evenly distributed across clusters. The prosocial motivation group experienced victimization to a lesser extent than the other profile groups. Students in the intermediate externally extrinsic group were more likely to take the pro‐bully and outsider role during bullying. Concerning student–teacher relationships, the prosocial motivation group reported the closest relationships with their teachers, while the intermediate externally extrinsic group reported the most conflictual relationships.     

Decomposing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise: Application to stages of motivational readiness

ObjectivesTwo studies were conducted to evaluate the reliability and predictive validity of measures of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise, and to examine differences in motivation as a function of stage of motivational readiness for exercise.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed in study one, and a longitudinal design was used in study two.MethodsIn study one, 184 healthy college students completed instruments to measure motivation and exercise stage. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were factor analyzed into subscales and validated in study two on a second sample of college students (n=220) by analyzing shifts in endorsement of motivation subscales from the beginning to end of the academic term.ResultsIn both samples, intrinsic motivation for exercise was most highly endorsed in maintenance and lowest in contemplation stage. All extrinsic motivation subscales except tangible rewards were also most highly endorsed in maintenance compared to other stages. In study two, students in activity classes (n=72) endorsed both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation more than those in lecture classes (n=70). Relative to patterns of physical activity, intrinsic motivation was greater than extrinsic motivation for the continually active group, and decreased for the continually inactive group. Exercise maintenance was fostered by greater intrinsic relative to extrinsic motivation.ConclusionIntrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be decomposed into meaningful subfactors that are differentially related to exercise adoption and maintenance.     

Within-person profiles of teachers' motivation to teach: Associations with need satisfaction at work,need-supportive teaching,and burnout

ObjectivesAccording to self-determination theory, teachers can engage in their job for a variety of reasons. Motivation can be controlled (feeling externally or internally pressured) or autonomous in nature (enjoying teaching or valuing its importance). The aim of this study was to identify motivational profiles (i.e., within-teacher combinations of autonomous and controlled motivation) and to examine associations between these motivational profiles and the following variables: experiences of need satisfaction, dimensions of teaching style, and burnout.DesignThis study has a cross-sectional design based on teacher reports.MethodsA total of 201 PE teachers signed in for an online questionnaire on motivation to teach, need satisfaction at work, need-supportive teaching and burnout.ResultsFour hypothesized motivational profiles were retained: a poor quality, a low quantity, a high quantity, and a good quality group. The good quality group displayed the most optimal pattern of antecedents and outcomes, closely followed by the high quantity group. The poor quality group displayed the most maladaptive pattern of associations with antecedents and outcomes, even in comparison to the low quantity group.ConclusionsEndorsing a specific motivational profile has implications for teachers' need satisfaction and burnout, but also for students, because the quality of teachers' motivation also shows in provided need support toward the students. This finding might convince school policy members and other stakeholders to value the importance of nurturing teachers' autonomous motivation.     

Motivation under the microscope: Understanding undergraduate science students’ multiple motivations for research

Little is known about students’ motivations toward scientific research or the implications of pursuing multiple research motivations simultaneously. We conducted latent profile analysis (a person-centered statistical technique) on 1,052 undergraduate students from three universities enrolled in physics, chemistry, and biology laboratory sections. Based on a tripartite model that conceptualizes research motivations as intrinsic, extrinsic, and failure avoidant, analyses revealed five distinct research motivational profiles which were described as Unmotivated; Neutral Engagement, Ternary-Driven; Emerging Engagement; and High Engagement. Profile membership was associated with differences in science class experiences, science identity, and future research intentions. Results showed students were optimally motivated toward science when highly endorsing both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, with low failure avoidance. These findings contribute to the literature on self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation and multiple goals, and these data create a framework for understanding undergraduate science laboratory experiences that may aid in efforts to broaden the participation of students in science.     

Managerial motivational profiles: Composition,antecedents, and consequences

Using a person-centered approach, we identified managers' (N = 321) motivational profiles and tested a model of the antecedents and consequences of these profiles. The profiles were based on four motivational types delineated by self-determination theory (i.e., external, introjected, identified, intrinsic). Latent profile analysis revealed six distinct motivational profiles. One of these was a self-determined profile (high identified and intrinsic motivation, moderately low introjected motivation, and low external motivation). Four other profiles combined average levels of external motivation with either very low, low, moderately low, or high internal (i.e., introjected, identified, and intrinsic) motivation. The final profile involved moderately high levels of all four motives. The antecedents of profile membership examined were perceived supervisor support and perceived organizational politics. The career-related outcomes of profile membership were work attitudes and promotability. The self-determined and high internal motivation profiles were associated with the most favorable work attitudes, followed by the moderately high motivation profile. The low internal motivation profiles were associated with the least favorable attitudes. Promotability did not differ across the profiles. With respect to the antecedents, low levels of supervisor support and high levels of politics increased the odds that a manager would exhibit profiles that were less desirable than the self-determined profile. Our findings provide initial information about managers' motivational profiles, as well as the antecedents and consequences of these profiles. Further, these results demonstrate the promise of a person-centered approach for advancing motivation research and management development.     

Intrinsic and extrinsic school motivation as a function of age: the mediating role of autonomy support

The main purpose of the present research was to investigate school intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and amotivation as a function of age in a sample of 1,600 elementary and high school students aged 9–17 years. First, results revealed a systematic decrease in intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation from age 9 to 12 years, a slow stabilization until 15 years old, followed by an increase after that point. Second, non self-determined extrinsic motivation showed a decrease up to 12 years old and a slow stabilization after that point. Finally, amotivation was relatively low and stable from age 9 to 17 years. Of importance is that the present results also revealed that teacher autonomy support mediated the age-school motivation relationships. The present results underscore the importance of a better understanding of the mechanisms through which lower intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation in older students take place, eventually leading to appropriate interventions and optimal motivation in students of all ages.     

Conscious Motivations of Adolescent Visual Artists and Creative Writers: Similarities and Differences

This exploratory study was designed to expand the field’s understanding of talented adolescent visual artists and creative writers and their conscious motivations for engaging in these creative activities. Accordingly, 233 talented high school visual arts (n = 151) and creative writing (n = 82) students were asked to rate the degree to which they believed their creative activities were motivated by each of a wide range of possible motivations. The students in both fields reported being very strongly motivated by the opportunities their activities provided them to use their imaginations, feel free, sense that they were being their “true” selves, regulate their emotions, capture moments in time, deepen their self-understanding, express themselves, improve their skills, and enhance their self-esteem. Some of these motivations correspond closely to those highlighted by theories of intrinsic motivation, competence motivation, and self-actualization, several are similar to those which have been reported by professional artists and writers, and some suggest that the students may have derived important psychological benefits from their creative activities. Theoretically plausible differences between the motivational profiles of the visual and creative writing students were identified and discussed.     

The motivations of adolescents who are addicted to online games: a cognitive perspective

This research explored, from the perspective of cognitive theory, the psychological motivations of Taiwanese adolescents who are addicted to online games. Study 1 focused on the differential motivations between the addicts and nonaddicts. The findings revealed that the addicts exhibited higher intrinsic than extrinsic motivation, whereas the nonaddicts showed an opposite relationship. The intrinsic motivation of the addicts was also higher than the nonaddicts. The results imply that intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in gaming addiction. Study 2 was conducted to examine whether four factors that moderate the detrimental effect of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation would function as predicted. Results indicated that extrinsic rewards would undermine intrinsic motivation when they were high expectancy, high relevance, tangible, and noncontingent. Thus, players' intrinsic motivation would be higher when extrinsic rewards were low expectancy, low relevance, intangible, and contingent. This article provides insights into the differential motivations of the addicted players and how to employ intrinsic motivators to affect their intrinsic motivation.     

Does students’ self-determined motivation toward Physical Education influence the effectiveness of a fitness teaching unit? A cluster-randomized controlled trial and cluster analysis

ObjectiveThe aim was to compare the effect of a Physical Education (PE)-based fitness teaching unit to improve cardiorespiratory fitness levels between students’ motivational profiles toward PE in high-school students using cluster analysis.MethodOne hundred and eighty-one high school students (final sample 165, 52.1% females; M_age = 12.9 ± 0.9) from nine pre-established classes were cluster-randomly assigned into an experimental group (n = 120) and control group (n = 61). The experimental group performed a fitness teaching unit twice a week for nine weeks. Students’ baseline of self-determined motivation toward PE was measured by the Spanish version of the Perceived Locus of Causality-II Scale. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured before and after the intervention through the 20-m shuttle run test.ResultsBased on a two-stage cluster analysis approach, four clusters were identified in both groups. Results showed that the experimental group students within the high self-determined motivational profiles toward PE (i.e., clusters 2 and 4) statistically significantly improved their cardiorespiratory fitness levels compared with the control group students in cluster 2 (i.e., those with moderate self-determined motivational profile toward PE) (p < 0.05; d = 0.37–0.48). However, statistically significant differences between the students with a moderate autonomous motivation profile toward PE (i.e., cluster 3 of the experimental group) and the control group students in clusters 2 and 3 were not found (p > 0.05). Conclusions: With the objective of increasing all students’ cardiorespiratory fitness levels, PE teachers should encourage students’ motivation toward PE applying specific motivational strategies during PE lessons.     

Muslim attitudes towards religion scale: Factors,validity and complexity of relationships with mental health in Iran

Iranian students responded to the 'Muslim Attitudes Towards Religion Scale' (MARS) along with measures of psychiatric symptoms, religious motivation, and mystical experience. The MARS contained three factors and these factors and the full scale were internally reliable. They also correlated positively with an extrinsic religious orientation, even more robustly with greater religious interest and an intrinsic religious orientation, and less consistently with slightly higher levels of self-reported mystical experience. The MARS failed to predict self-reported psychiatric symptoms, but partial correlations uncovered both direct and then inverse linkages with such symptoms after controlling for the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, respectively. Theology students with a concentration in Islamic philosophy displayed the highest MARS scores. The MARS, therefore, was a valid measure of Iranian religiosity, but in Iran, and perhaps in other Muslim societies as well, motivational factors may be critical in determining how the MARS correlates with mental health.     

Updating Allport's and Batson's Framework of Religious Orientations: A Reevaluation from the Perspective of Self‐Determination Theory and Wulff's Social Cognitive Model

We theoretically and empirically evaluate Allport's intrinsic‐extrinsic and Batson's quest religious orientations through the lens of self‐determination theory (SDT) and Wulff's social‐cognitive model. Confirming our theoretical analysis, we find that Allport's intrinsic‐extrinsic dichotomy fails to correspond empirically to the differentiation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation within SDT. Whereas Allport's intrinsic religious orientation was positively related to internalized extrinsic motivation, his two extrinsic (i.e., personal and social) religious orientations were not systematically related to any of the discerned motives within SDT. Furthermore, Batson's quest orientation was unrelated to any of the SDT concepts but was positively related to symbolic disbelief. The present findings suggest that Allport's motivational orientations model needs both refinement and relabeling to better fit with recent theoretical evolutions in the field of motivational psychology.     

Changes in students’ goal pursuits and motivational regulations toward healthy behaviors during the pandemic: A Self-Determination Theory perspective

ObjectivesIn this study, we examined how students’ perceptions of teachers and parents’ need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors, related to their intrinsic and extrinsic goal pursuits, and in turn their motivational regulations toward physical activity in virtual physical education lessons over a semester during the Sars-COV2 pandemic.DesignShort-term longitudinal study.MethodsStudents (M_age = 14.43, SD = 0.99) completed the targeted questionnaires at the beginning (T1, N = 295) and the end (T2, N = 194) of a virtual semester.ResultsThe results of the autoregressive model indicated that all measures were relatively stable from T1 to T2. Neither teachers nor parents’ need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors at T1 predicted students’ intrinsic goal pursuits at T2, except for teachers’ need-supportive behaviors at T1 negatively marginally predicted students’ extrinsic goal pursuits at T2. The results also showed that intrinsic goal pursuits at T2 positively and negatively related to autonomous motivation and amotivation at T2, respectively. Extrinsic goal at T2 positively related to controlled motivation and amotivation at T2.ConclusionsFindings suggested that teachers need-supportive behaviors are important for decreasing students’ extrinsic goal pursuits, while parents’ need-thwarting behaviors relate to students’ amotivation over time during the lockdown periods. Also, students’ intrinsic goal pursuits would contribute positively to autonomous motivation and negatively to amotivation over time.     

Testing a bi-factor model to disentangle general and specific factors of motivation in self-determination theory

We examined the utility of the bi-factor model for disentangling general motivation and specific motivations (i.e., amotivation, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic regulations) in relation to goal progress and physical activity (PA). Participants (N = 186 undergraduate students; M_age = 19.26 years) completed assessments of motivation and PA at Time 1. Four weeks later, PA and goal progress were assessed at Time 2. Results indicated that the exploratory bi-factor model specifying motivational regulations as the specific factors and general motivation as the general factor was a good fit to the data. Results of the structural equation model indicated that identified and intrinsic regulations and general motivation predicted concurrent PA at Time 1. A novel finding was that controlling for concurrent PA at Time 1, general motivation emerged as the only predictor of Time 2 goal progress and PA. Results highlight the importance of examining general motivation in addition to quality of motivation in tandem because general motivation emerged as the sole significant longitudinal predictor of PA outcomes.     

Profil motivationnel et performance sportive

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between motivation and performance in the sport domain based on self-determination theory (Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M., 1985a. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum, New York). Cluster analysis revealed the presence of three motivational profiles in a sample of French national tennis players (N = 127). Then, an analysis of variance revealed that sport performance differed across these three clusters. More specifically, results showed that a motivational profile characterized by moderate to high levels of autonomous and controlled motivations both at contextual and situational levels was conducive to the worst performances. Implications for future research as well as for athletes and their coaches are discussed.     

Examining the Growth Trajectories of Physical Education Students’ Motivation,Enjoyment, and Physical Activity: A Person-Oriented Approach

The study examined the growth trajectories in 757 (M age = 12.71) Finnish middle school students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation along with their enjoyment and physical activity. In addition, the study aimed to examine the role of intrinsic and extrinsic physical education motivation in the development in adolescents’ enjoyment and physical activity by identifying adolescents’ subgroups. Adolescents’ enjoyment and physical activity declined, intrinsic motivation was stable, and extrinsic motivation increased across middle school. Adolescents with highest levels of intrinsic motivation and moderate to high levels of extrinsic regulation had the highest levels of enjoyment and physical activity.     

Motivational clusters and performance in a real-life setting

The present research investigated whether assessing adolescent elite athletes’ motivational profiles at the beginning of the season would allow us to predict their subsequent performance over the course of a competitive season. In two studies, athletes completed the French version of the Sport Motivation Scale (Brière et al., Int J Sport Psychol 26:465–489, 1995) at the beginning of the season. Objective levels of performance were recorded for the following season, as well as for the season prior to questionnaire completion. In Study 1, the sample comprised a total of 170 French junior national tennis players (M = 13.42 years). Results revealed the presence of a four-cluster solution, reflecting different levels of autonomous and controlled motivations. Results revealed that controlling for past performance, athletes with the least self-determined motivational profile obtained lower levels of subsequent tennis performance than those in the three other (more self-determined motivational) clusters. In Study 2, there were a total of 250 French junior national fencers aged 15 years. Results revealed a three-cluster solution very similar to that of Study 1. In addition, in line with Study 1, results revealed that the least self-determined motivational profile led to the lowest level of performance. Overall, these findings suggest that cluster analysis is useful in the understanding of the complex relationship between motivation and performance in elite sport.

Motivations for social withdrawal and academic adjustment in emerging adulthood

While social withdrawal in childhood is typically associated with lower academic functioning, little is known about how motivations for social withdrawal may be connected to academic adjustment in emerging adulthood. The purpose of the present study was to examine associations between social withdrawal motivations (i.e., shyness, avoidance and unsociability) and indices of academic adjustment, including academic achievement (i.e., grade point average [GPA]) and academic motivation (i.e., intrinsic value, self-efficacy and test anxiety), while accounting for gender and conscientiousness. Participants were 623 emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 25 (M_age = 20.15, SD = 1.67; 79% female) who were currently attending university. Hierarchical regression results showed that shyness was negatively associated with intrinsic value and self-efficacy. Whereas shyness was positively associated with test anxiety, avoidance was negatively associated with test anxiety. Social withdrawal motivations were not associated with GPA. The findings suggest that some motivations for social withdrawal play a role in university students’ academic motivation, but not their academic achievement.     

Reading Motivation in Spanish-Speaking Dual Language Learners: Comparing Two Types of Student Report

Abstract

Employing a mixed methods approach, this study examined the reading motivations of dual language learners (DLLs) in Grades 3–5 in a suburban Title I school in which the student population was predominantly Hispanic. Twenty-one students completed self-report surveys and participated in interviews focused on two intrinsic motivations (involvement and curiosity), two extrinsic motivations (competition and recognition), and self-efficacy for reading. Quantitative analyses of the survey and interview data were consistent in indicating that the students experienced these motivations to a moderate to strong degree, with the exception that interview-based scores for competition were fairly low, in comparison to both the interview-based scores for the other motivations and the survey-based score for competition. Correlations between scores on the survey and interview measures for each construct varied. Qualitative analyses illustrated the depth and variety of students’ thinking about their reading motivations, and provided insight into studying and strengthening students’ reading motivation in ways that may be particularly relevant for DLLs.     

Adolescent Motivations to Engage in Pro‐Social Behaviors and Abstain From Health‐Risk Behaviors: A Self‐Determination Theory Approach

The present study used self‐determination theory to examine adolescents' motivations to engage in charitable donating and community volunteering and to abstain from sexual intercourse and marijuana use. The sample consisted of 419 late adolescents recruited from across the country through an online survey panel. Participants completed online measures of motivations to engage in donating and volunteering, motivations to abstain from sex and marijuana, and single‐item indexes of the four behaviors. Variable‐centered analyses (correlation and regression) found evidence for a general motivational factor, motivational specificity by behavioral domain (positive and negative behaviors), motivational specificity by particular behavior (charitable donating, volunteering, sexual risk‐taking, and marijuana use), and a stronger relative role for autonomous motivations than controlled motivations. Person‐centered analyses (cluster analysis) found four motivation profiles (low motivation, medium motivation, high motivation, and mixed motivation) for all four behaviors and suggested that level of autonomous motivation was a key factor differentiating the groups on levels of behavior. The findings suggest different levels of motivational specificity and highlight the importance of autonomous motivations in predicting behaviors as compared to controlled motivations. Further, similar patterns were found for motivations to engage and to abstain.