家中不同游戏情境中婴儿与父母交流行为的比较研究

采用录像手段,考察真实的家庭环境中,16名婴儿与父亲和母亲在自由游戏和完成任务游戏情境中的交流行为。研究结果表明,无论在自由游戏还是在完成任务游戏中,母亲的表态行为都比父亲的多些。婴儿对母亲的表态行为比对父亲的多,对父亲的行动祈求、信息祈求和注意祈求行为比对母亲的多。在自由游戏中,母亲比父亲更多地承诺参与儿童的游戏。总体上,父母亲根据交流情境选择交流行为外,也表现出自身的特点,孩子则根据交流对象的选择交流行为。     

家中游戏情境对父婴交流行为的影响

采用录像手段,考察真实的家庭环境中,自由游戏和完成任务游戏情境对16对父婴交流行为的影响。研究结果表明：父亲表现出高控制的交流行为,以行动指令和信息祈求①为主,孩子则以顺从行为为主。游戏情境对父亲的部分交流行为有明显影响,父亲在自由游戏中的信息祈求行为①比在任务游戏中多,断言行为②比在任务游戏中少。总体上,父亲根据游戏情境调整自己的交流行为,婴儿也表现出相应的适应性行为。     

在家庭自由游戏和智力任务游戏中亲子交往行为特征

本研究采用家庭录像观察,考察了53名4岁儿童及其父母在自然的家庭环境中的两个情境———自由游戏和完成拼图任务的智力游戏情境中儿童与其父母交往的行为特征和互动类型。结果发现:(1)在儿童4岁时,在家庭自由游戏情境中母亲的各种行为均显著多于父亲的各种行为,这表明在游戏过程中,母亲是儿童主要的交往对象。在拼图游戏情境中,除了父亲和母亲在商量和交流行为上没有显著差异之外,母亲的其他行为显著多于父亲的其他行为。儿童在这两个游戏情境中均表现出较多的顺从行为。(2)在自由游戏情境中,亲子互动类型包括四种:父母交流-儿童不交流型、母亲高控-儿童顺从型、父亲控制-儿童不顺从型和母亲不交流-儿童交流型。拼图游戏情境中,亲子互动类型有四种:父母放任-儿童独立型、父母控制-儿童顺从型、母子交流型和父亲控制-儿童顺从型。     

在家庭自由游戏和智力任务游戏中儿童与母亲的交往行为特征

本研究采用家庭录像观察的方法,考察了61名3－4岁儿童在家庭环境中的两个情境－－自由和带有智力任务倾向的拼图游戏情境中所表现出来的行为特征,结果发现：1儿童在两种游戏情境中与母亲交往时所表现出来的行为特征可以从独立性、顺从、言语交流和参与四个维度进行评价。2当儿童的游戏从自由游戏转为带有智力任务倾向的游戏时,儿童与母亲的交往行为方式发生明显变化,交流行为和积极情绪明显减少,而依赖行为和不与母亲交流的行为显著增加。3在上述两种游戏情境中,儿童与母亲的交往行为表现出个别差异,在自由游戏情境中,42.6%为独立型、32.8%为顺从型和24.6%为交流型;在拼图游戏情境中,54％为独立型、23％为顺从型和23％不顺从型。     

在家庭自由游戏和智力任务游戏中母亲对孩子的态度特征

采用家庭观察的方法,考察了61名3—4岁儿童在家庭环境中的两个情境——自由游戏和带有智力任务倾向的拼图游戏中,其母亲对他们的态度和行为的特征,结果发现：(1)母亲在2种类型的游戏中对待孩子的态度和行为可以从母亲对孩子的控制性(高控、低控)、温暖性(接受和拒绝)、言语交流和参与性4个维度做出评价。(2)当儿童的游戏从自由游戏转为带有智力任务倾向的游戏时,母亲对待孩子的态度和行为方式发生明显变化,直接要求、提问等高控行为增多,互相商量等低控行为减少;对孩子的拒绝行为和态度增强,而肯定、爱抚、积极情绪等接受行为减少;与孩子的言语交流和参与行为减少。(3)在上述2种游戏情境中,母亲对待孩子的态度表现出个别差异,在自由游戏情境中,42．6％的母亲为宽松型,32．8％的母亲为温暖型,24．6％的母亲为交流型。在带有智力任务倾向的游戏中,54％的母亲为宽松型,23％的母亲为低控型,23％的母亲为高控型。     

课堂情境与任务难度对学业求助之影响的研究

本实验以初二年级学生为被试,研究了课堂情境、任务难度、学业成绩以及性别对学业求助的影响。结果表明：(1)任务关注的课堂情境比自我关注的课堂情境导致更多的求助行为,求助方式上,则倾向于工具性求助。(2)完成难度适中学习任务的学生比完成高难度学习任务的学生表现出更多的求助行为,求助方式上,则倾向于工具性求助。(3)在任何条件下,成绩好的学生都比成绩差的学生更善于作工具性求助。(4)从总体来看,初二学生的求助行为不存在性别差异。但在自我关注的课堂中,男生比女生表现出更多的回避求助。     

不同自尊者在赌博情境下的风险规避行为

为了考察不同自尊水平的个体在赌博情境下的风险规避行为,263名大学生被试同时完成外显Rosenberg量表、内隐联想测验和21点赌博游戏。实验结果发现,(1)随着风险的增加,所有被试都表现出风险规避;(2)在高外显自尊水平的个体中,低内隐自尊水平个体比高内隐自尊水平个体表现出更多的风险规避行为;在低内隐自尊的个体中,高外显自尊个体比低外显自尊个体表现出更多的风险规避行为。风险规避行为间接地反映出个体的防御倾向,结果提示,在风险情境中,高外显低内隐自尊个体表现出较高的自我防御倾向。     

黑白背景颜色对诚信行为的影响

从诚信的“诚实”和“守信”两个维度来探讨黑白隐喻表征对诚信行为的影响。实验1使用信息传递-接收任务范式,发现任务信息呈现在白色背景上时个体会表现出更多的诚实行为;实验2采用改编的“信任游戏”范式,发现白色背景同样会促进守信行为。本研究从具身认知角度对此进行了深入探讨。     

2岁幼儿的社会朝向反应——本质及功能

本研究以66对17至32个月的幼儿和母亲为研究对象,研究了在实验室情境中,幼儿在不同实验情境下对母亲的社会朝向反应,并探讨了幼儿社会朝向行为的功能以及母亲的行为对幼儿社会朝向反应的影响。结果显示,（1）大多数幼儿在实验中都表现出了至少一次的社会朝向反应,社会朝向反应的发生是酱遍的;（2）在不同情境中,幼儿的社会朝向反应不同,在积极的情境中,社会朝向反应有分享情绪经历的功能;在抗拒诱惑的任务中,社会朝向行为与获得支持有关;（3）母亲对情境的非信息性反应对幼儿的社会朝向行为有影响,社会朝向是幼儿对社会情境的适应性行为,对这种非语言的情感交流行为的研究可以帮助我们探究幼儿情绪社会化的过程。     

动机与情境对不同自控水平儿童学业求助的影响

本实验以小学儿童为被试,研究了在不同动机取向和情境条件下的不同自我控制水平儿童的学业求助行为。结果表明：（１）单独无自尊压力的解难题情境比群体压力情境导致更多的求助行为。（２）低自控儿童比高自控儿童产生更多的执行性求助,但主要表现在单独无自尊压力的情境下。（３）在群体压力情境下,自我卷入的儿童比任务卷入的儿童表现出更多的求助行为。（４）在单独无自尊压力的情境下,任务卷入的儿童比自我卷入的儿童表现出     

Maternal question-asking behavior to Taiwanese children with Down syndrome and with no disability

To study maternal question-asking of Taiwanese children during free play and at meal time each mother-child dyad was videotaped at home. The mothers of children with Down syndrome asked more questions across different types of question during free play, at meal time, and for the sum of these two. Although no group difference was found for producing each type of question during free play, these 20 mothers asked more directive questions at meal time. Combined conditions analysis showed they used more directive questions and fewer requests for clarification than the 20 mothers of children with no disability.     

IMPRESSIONS OF MOTHERS AND FATHERS ON THE PERIPHERY OF CHILD CARE

This study was designed to assess impressions of employed mothers and fathers who do not provide the primary child care in their familial context. Participants read a story about an employed mother or father who demonstrated very little direct involvement in the care of his or her child. As hypothesized, impressions of a mother who did not play a central role in caregiving were more affected by whether or not she had a clear situational reason for not providing care (i.e., she was out of town) than impressions of a father. These findings imply continuing differences in child care expectations for mothers and fathers.     

Mothers' part-time employment: associations with mother and family well-being

The associations between mothers' part-time employment and mother well-being, parenting, and family functioning were examined using seven waves of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development data (N = 1,364), infancy through middle childhood. Concurrent comparisons were made between families in which mothers were employed part time and both those in which mothers were not employed and those in which mothers were employed full time. Using multivariate analysis of covariance with extensive controls, results indicated that mothers employed part time had fewer depressive symptoms during the infancy and preschool years and better self-reported health at most time points than did nonemployed mothers. Across the time span studied, mothers working part time tended to report less conflict between work and family than those working full time. During their children's preschool years, mothers employed part time exhibited more sensitive parenting than did other mothers, and at school age were more involved in school and provided more learning opportunities than mothers employed full time. Mothers employed part time reported doing a higher proportion of child care and housework than mothers employed full time. Part-time employment appears to have some benefits for mothers and families throughout the child rearing years.     

Domestic Stress and Well-Being of Employed Women: Interplay Between Demands and Decision Control at Home

Family researchers have suggested that shared decision control is important for coping with stressful demands at home, whereas occupational stress theorists view personal decision control as an essential coping resource. We studied the effects of home demands, personal decision control, and shared decision control at home on burnout and satisfaction with life, using Karasek’s job-demands-control model to gauge home stress and its outcomes. Participants were 133 mothers employed in secretarial and managerial jobs. We hypothesized that shared control would correlate more strongly with burnout and satisfaction with life than would personal control. In multiple regression analyses, demands had independent main effects on both outcomes. Shared control significantly predicted satisfaction with life, but not burnout, and personal control predicted neither. It is suggested that in families (as in teams), shared decision control may be a more potent coping resource than personal control.     

FATHER PLAY: IS IT SPECIAL?

Both mothers and fathers play with their children, but research on parent–child play interactions is conducted with mothers three times more often than it is with fathers. The articles in this special issue address this gap by focusing on the nature and quality of father–child play, across cultural contexts, and considering whether father play offers something unique and special for early human development, in infancy or early childhood. The studies show that fathers can be just as developmentally supportive as are mothers in terms of being playful and engaged with their children in ways that are related to greater child socioemotional competence, emotion regulation, and vocabulary, and to less aggression, anxiety, and negativity. We encourage future research to examine the cultural influences, family system dynamics, and specificity of timing and types of father–child play in relation to children's developmental competence.     

The effects of labeled and unlabeled praise upon lower and middle class children

This study investigated the relative effectiveness of two types of content of praise, labeled and unlabeled, with lower and middle class children. Following two brief observation periods designed to assess differences in the frequency with which lower and middle class mothers employed labeled and unlabeled praise, each mother played the marble-in-the-hole game with her child. Half of the mothers in each group were given labeled and half were given unlabeled praise statements to make contingent upon their child dropping marbles in a particuler hole. The results indicated that the children were more responsive to labeled than to unlabeled praise. The mothers from the two socioeconomic groups did not differ in the frequency with which they employed labeled and unlabeled praise in the initial observation periods.     

Constructing the “Good Mother”: The Experience of Mothering Ideologies by Work Status

The purpose of this study was to explore how mothers construct their worker–parent identity within a cultural context of competing mothering ideologies. We used narrative data from interviews with 95 married mothers with at least 1 child under the age of 5 to compare the construction of intensive mothering expectations by middle-class full-time employed mothers, part-time employed mothers, and at-home mothers. Although previous research has shown that mothers alter work status to live up to intensive mothering expectations, our results show that mothers also alter their construction of intensive mothering expectations to reconcile these demands with their work status choices. The results also suggest that mothers with different employment decisions differ in their construction of Y. Elvin-Nowak and H. Thomsson's (2001) 3 discursive positions—accessibility, happy mother/happy child, and separation of work and home.     

All smiles are positive, but some smiles are more positive than others

Disagreement as to whether all smiling or specific types of smiling index positive emotion early in life was addressed by examining when infants produced different types of smiling and other facial expressions. Thirteen infants were observed weekly from 1 to 6 months of age. Smiling alone--without cheek raising or mouth opening--was relatively more likely than periods without smiling both when mothers were smiling and when infants were gazing at their mothers' faces. Cheek-raise (Duchenne) smiling was relatively more likely than smiling alone only when mothers were smiling. Open-mouth (play) smiling was relatively more likely than smiling alone only when infants were gazing directly at mothers' faces. Smiling involving both cheek raising and mouth opening was relatively likely both when mothers were smiling and when infants were gazing at mothers' faces and became increasingly likely with age when both conditions co-occurred. The cheek-raise and open-mouth dimensions of smiling appear to be associated with, respectively, the amplification of processes of sharing positive affect and of visual engagement that are present to a lesser degree in smiling alone.