Moderating effects of organizational climate on relationships between goal-setting attributes and employee satisfaction

The moderating effects of nine organizational climate factors were examined on the relationships between four goal-setting attributes and three measures of employee satisfaction. Subjects were 245 scientists and engineers participating in an MBO program. Researchers did not find sufficient evidence to warrant a general statement concerning the moderating effects of organizational climate in this context. Explanations, however, are offered for the specific moderating effects which were discovered.     

Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. A 35-year odyssey

The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. The external validity and practical significance of goal-setting theory are explained, and new directions in goal-setting research are discussed. The relationships of goal setting to other theories are described as are the theory's limitations.     

Self-esteem,race, and job satisfaction

The present study investigated relationships between self-esteem (SE) and job satisfaction among black and white employees. The sample consisted of 523 (45% black) employees of a large, urban school system. There was a positive relationship between SE and job satisfaction for members of both racial groups. In addition, the correlation between need satisfaction and job satisfaction was stronger for high SE persons than for low SE persons. The relationships between two social reference variables (the perceived satisfaction of other employees and improved standard of living) and job satisfaction were, as predicted, stronger for low SE whites than for high SE whites. Among blacks, however, the social reference variables were strongly related to job satisfaction regardless of level of SE.     

An Investigation of the Relationships Between Spirituality, Health Status and Quality of Life in Adolescents

This study examines the relationships between six spirituality-related attributes and quality of life (QOL) in adolescents, and the extent to which these relationships are mediated by perceived physical and mental health status and five important life domains (family, friends, living environment, school experiences, and perception of self). The data were obtained via a cross-sectional health survey of 8,225 adolescents in British Columbia, Canada. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized relationships. All spiritual attributes are significantly associated with three or more of the life domains, and four of the attributes significantly explain global QOL after controlling for the other variables in the multivariate model. The attributes indicative of adolescents’ feelings about their future and other existential matters were found to be relatively most explanatory with respect to global QOL. The predominant mediators include adolescents’ satisfaction with their family, their perceived self, and their perceived mental health status. Spirituality is important with respect to adolescents’ QOL. The multivariate model provides preliminary insights into the relevance of several attributes of spirituality and the possible mechanisms by which these attributes may contribute to adolescents’ QOL.     

The influence of component participation and role models on goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance

The present investigation examined the effects of different types of participation (choice) and role models in goal setting on goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance. It was hypothesized that choice in setting a goal and a strategy to achieve the goal would positively benefit goal acceptance, performance, and goal satisfaction. In addition, it was predicted that a role model would differentially influence an individual's goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance. One hundred twenty male college students working on a class scheduling task were exposed to either a high- or low-performing role model and given various amounts of choice in the goal-setting process. The results of two-way analyses of variance demonstrated that goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance were highest for individuals given choice over their goal and their strategy to achieve the goal. In addition, the results demonstrated that an individual exposed to a high-performing role model outperformed and had higher goal acceptance and satisfaction than an individual exposed to a low-performing model. The results are discussed as a means for clarifying the effects of different types of choice in the goal-setting process and the importance of role-provided information in influencing an individual's performance.     

GENDER,MENTORING, AND CAREER SUCCESS: THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT

This study examines the moderating effects of protégé sex and organizational context on relationships between senior-male mentors and objective and subjective career outcomes among midcareer managers and professionals. Extending signaling theory, and using a 3-way interaction, we found that associations between senior-male mentoring, cash compensation, and career progress satisfaction were greatest among women working in male-gendered industries. By contextualizing the protégé sex-by-mentoring interaction and by considering key mentor attributes, the results of this study provide important insights into where, why, and for whom access to a senior-male mentor is related to career success and contribute to building more complete models of the career attainment process.     

A Conceptualization and Test of the Influences of Individual Differences in Goal-Setting Situations1

This research tests a hypothesized model of the relationships among several individual differences and variables associated with the setting of goals. Participants were randomly assigned to a self-set goal condition, or to moderately or very-difficult assigned-goal conditions. By aggregating scores of performance, personal goals, ratings of self-efficacy, and goal commitment over multiple goal-setting and task-performance occasions, the overall relationships among these variables and need for achievement, self-esteem, and locus of control were determined. Results provide strong support for Locke and Latham's (1990a, 1990b) model of the goal-performance relation, but fail to support the hypothesized role of individual differences. The implications of these findings and individual differences in goal-setting situations are discussed.     

Religiosity, Religious Doubt, and the Need for Cognition: Their Interactive Relationship with Life Satisfaction

Previous research has found a consistent, negative relationship between holding religious doubts and mental well-being, and a small positive relationship between religiosity and mental well-being. To assess the interrelationship between religious doubt, religiosity, and need for cognition on life satisfaction, a survey was administered to an almost exclusively Christian sample of 192 Americans drawn from undergraduates and alumni of a small mid-western college, undergraduates from a small south-eastern college, and several churches from the metro-Detroit area. Zero-order correlations revealed relationships between religiosity and life satisfaction, as well as religious doubt and life satisfaction. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that the three-way interaction of religiosity, religious doubt, and the need for cognition was predictive of life satisfaction. Significant two-way interactions also emerged for both gender and religiosity, and gender and religious doubt as predictors of life satisfaction. Based upon these findings, counseling applications are discussed, and the importance of probing for interactions in research on religious influences on well-being is espoused. Portions of this research were presented at the 2004 Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, HI.     

Two tests of Maslow's theory of need fulfillment

In a two-part test of Maslow's theory of human motivation, two relationships were explored: (1) the relationship between need importance and need deficiencies, and (2) the relationship between need deficiencies and life satisfaction. The subjects were groups of women college graduates in three types of occupations: professional-managerial, clerical-sales, and homemaking. In the first study, group differences in actual deficiencies did not support the hypothesis that need importance is negatively correlated with need deficiencies. Rankings of the deficiencies for the three groups, however, were consistent with the hypothesized relationship, as were the small but significant correlations that were obtained between need importance and deficiency values. In the second study, the findings gave partial support to Maslow's theory in that a significant relationship was found between need fulfillment and life satisfaction for two of the three occupational groups. The findings of both studies are discussed in relation to considerations in women's career development.     

COMMUNICATION SATISFACTION,JOB SATISFACTION,AND JOB PERFORMANCE

This field study of 327 hospital nurses investigated the relationship between perceived satisfaction with organizational communication and job satisfaction and job performance. The researcher developed a research model incorporating nine dimensions of communication satisfaction and hypothesized their varying relationships with job satisfaction and job performance. Correlation, multiple regression, and canonical correlation analyses revealed significant positive relationships between communication satisfaction and job satisfaction, and communication satisfaction and job performance. The communication satisfaction-job satisfaction link was stronger. The same facets of communication—supervisor communication, communication climate, and personal feedback—were found to be most strongly related to both job satisfaction and performance. Although the importance of the superior-subordinate communication relationship was confirmed, top management communication also was substantially related to job satisfaction and, to a lesser degree, job performance. Rank-order correlation results of this study were compared to several other studies and some congruent patterns were found.     

Cultural Dimensions,Gender, and the Nature of Self-concept: A Fourteen-country Study

Ratings of the importance of and satisfaction with 20 areas of the self were obtained from 3604 first or second year social science undergraduates from 14 countries (15 cultures). Factor analysis at the culture by gender level supported four factors for both sets of ratings. The resulting factor scores were analyzed for mean differences according to the cultural dimension of Individualism-Collectivism by Gender and by correlations with other cultural dimenions and economic indicators. It was found that participants from the 10 collectivist cultures placed greater salience for their self-concepts on “family values” than did those from the individualist cultures. However, this cultural difference was not found for “social relationships”. The expected gender differences, with females valuing “family values” and “social relationships” more highly, were found only for the individualist countries. The findings indicate that there may be a strong cultural level interaction effect between gender and Individualism-Collectivism on the nature of self-conceptions, and that the “family” and “social” aspects of self-concept in collectivist countries need to be considered separately.     

A Test of Subordinates' Achievement and Affiliation Needs as Moderators of Leader Path-Goal Relationships

The path-goal theory of leadership proposes that situational and subordinates' characteristics moderate the effectiveness of various leader behaviors. A great deal of research has been devoted to the examination of situational moderators. This study tested the moderating influences of subordinates' needs for achievement and affiliation on the relationships between instrumental and supportive leadership and subordinates' satisfaction. Using a sample of 298 Army and Navy Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) cadets, need for achievement, but not need for affiliation, was found to moderate the influences of both leader behaviors on subordinate satisfaction. Individuals with high need for achievement were demonstrated to prefer instrumental leadership, whereas individuals' with low need for achievement preferred supportive leader behaviors. Implications of these results, and the need for future research concerning the moderating properties of subordinates' characteristics on path-goal relationships, are discussed.     

The relationship between differential inequity, job satisfaction, intention to turnover, and self-esteem

This study was an examination of differential inequity or underreward in working conditions, originating from the discrepancy between individual working conditions and those of comparative referents. In its exploration of the outcomes of inequity in working conditions, the study fills a gap in the literature because most such studies have been primarily devoted to investigations of pay inequity. Empirically, it is an investigation of elements of differential inequity as antecedents of job satisfaction and intentions to turnover and of self-esteem as a moderator of inequity-criteria relationships. Significant relationships between system and age inequity and job satisfaction and between company inequity and intention to turnover were found. Self-esteem significantly moderated the global inequity-job satisfaction and global inequity-intention to turnover relationships.     

Need Satisfaction Supportive Game Features as Motivational Determinants: An Experimental Study of a Self-Determination Theory Guided Exergame

Empirical studies have validated that basic needs satisfaction supported by video game play predicts motivation and engagement outcomes. However, few studies specifically manipulated game features for each of the three basic needs specified in the self-determination theory (SDT) to examine how the game features impact players' need satisfaction and game experience. The current study employed an in-house developed exergame and manipulated the game features in a 2 (autonomy-supportive game features: on vs. off) × 2 (competence-supportive game features: on vs. off) experiment to predict need satisfaction, game enjoyment, motivation for future play, effort for gameplay, self-efficacy for exercise using the game, likelihood of game recommendation, and game rating. The manipulated game features led to the corresponding need satisfaction. Manipulated autonomy-supportive and competence-supportive game features had main effects on most motivation and engagement outcomes. Need satisfaction of autonomy and need satisfaction of competence were both found to be mediators for the relationships between the game features and the motivation and engagement outcomes. The findings add evidence to support the underlying mechanism postulated by SDT for media enjoyment and motivation as well as the emerging entertainment research conceptualizing enjoyment as need satisfaction. The findings also have practical implications for intervention effort that intends to capitalize the motivational pull of video games.     

Self-esteem,motivation and school attendance among sub-Saharan African girls: A self-determination theory perspective

Sub-Saharan samples are severely under-represented in the psychological literature. Taking an ecological approach, the current study examines key propositions derived from self-determination theory in a sample of adolescent girls in Mozambique. As a framework theory, self-determination theory consists of six sub-theories. We test the main premises of two of these theories: organismic integration theory and basic psychological need theory. In line with organismic integration theory, we assess the role of intrinsic, extrinsic, introjected and identified motivation for school attendance. We also test the possible moderating role of the ecological variable resource scarcity. The second part of the study focuses on the main premise of the basic psychological need sub-theory, which states that satisfaction of the needs for relatedness, competence and autonomy underlies intrinsic motivation, goal-directed behaviour (school attendance) and well-being (self-esteem). The study also assesses the moderation of resource scarcity in these relationships. Results provide support for both sub-theories of self-determination theory. Resource scarcity is not found to moderate the relationships between motivation and attendance or between need satisfaction and well-being, motivation and attendance. Implications for the universality claim of self-determination theory, as well as for the field of international development aid, are discussed.     

The task-related competency and compliance aspects of goal setting: A clarification

The relative salience of the competency information and compliance aspects of the goal-setting context was manipulated to study its effect on affective task reactions to an interesting and a boring task. The results indicated that task satisfaction was the highest when goal attainment was essential for obtaining monetary incentives but highly salient competency information was also provided. This effect, however, held only for the boring task. On the interesting task, there was no evidence of an adverse effect for goals on task satisfaction regardless of the relative salience of the two aspects. Subjects performing either task were, however, significantly more satisfied with the goal-setting process itself when the goals conveyed competency information than when the goals failed to convey this information.     

Loving, liking, looking and sensation seeking in unmarried college couples

This study examined the relationships between sensation seeking or sensation seeking similarity and relationship satisfaction in college couples. Fifty-eight couples were tested with the Sensation Seeking Scale form V and the Loving and Liking Scales, and each couple was observed for eye gaze behavior. Eye gaze was found to be unrelated to the questionnaire measures of relationship involvement and a low but significant negative relationship was found between the female partner's love rating and mutual gaze and focus. As in previous research, couples' sensation seeking scores were significantly correlated, indicating tendencies toward assortative mating. However, only the women's relationship satisfaction scores were related to discrepancies in the couples' SSS scores. Individual sensation seeking scores correlated negatively with relationship satisfaction for both sexes. The latter effect was explained in terms of the high sensation seeker having a variety of interests outside of their primary relationships, and stronger tendencies for boredom and independence.     

Gender and sex role differences in the perception of social support

This study examined the relationships among support types (i.e., emotional, instrumental, and nonintimate social participation), gender, sex role orientation, and stress level among college undergraduates (N=253). Dependent variables included need, perceived availability, and satisfaction with support. Sex differences were found only in emotional support, with men reporting less need, perceived availability, and marginally less satisfaction than women. The only gender by sex role interaction was on need for emotional support. Traditional sex-typed men reported less need than traditional women, whereas there was no difference between androgynous men and women. While sex differences do exist for emotional support, the effects of sex role orientation on perceptions of social support appears to be somewhat circumscribed.     

Longitudinal relationships between workplace bullying,basic psychological needs,and employee functioning: a simultaneous investigation of psychological need satisfaction and frustration

The aim of this cross-lagged study was to provide new insight into the interplay between workplace bullying, basic psychological needs (for autonomy, competence, and relatedness), and employee functioning. Based on new developments in self-determination theory (SDT) research, we simultaneously examined the temporal relationships between workplace bullying, need satisfaction and frustration, as well as two indicators of psychological functioning: life satisfaction and psychosomatic complaints. Data were collected at two time points over a 12-month period from a sample of 508 Canadian nurses. Results suggest that bullying not only negatively predicted satisfaction for the needs of autonomy and competence, it actively frustrated all three needs. Frustration of the needs for competence and relatedness as well as satisfaction of the need for relatedness also predicted the psychological functioning of employees exposed to bullying behaviour over time. Taken together, the results suggest that evaluating need frustration provides in-depth insight into the detrimental effects of bullying on employees’ psychological inner resources and may explain the impoverishment of employees’ psychological functioning when confronted with bullying behaviour. The implications for the bullying and SDT literature are discussed.     

Marital satisfaction,parenting satisfaction,and parenting behavior in early infancy

The relationships between marital adjustment, satisfaction with parenting and actual parental behavior were assessed for a sample of first-time parents. Results indicated that there were consistent relationships between fathers' satisfaction scores and their own behaviors, but few relationships between mothers' behaviors and satisfaction scores. It was suggested that the determinants of the behavior of mothers and fathers may differ. In the absence of specific socialization of fathers into a caregiving role, fathers' caregiving style may become organized and develop primarily in the context of their relationships with their spouses.