Toward an Integration of Interpersonal Risk Models of Depression and Cognitive‐Behaviour Therapy

Empirical research has increasingly focused on interpersonal variables associated with the development and maintenance of depression. This article outlines some key interpersonal risk factors for depression, including anxious attachment, sociotropy, excessive reassurance seeking, interpersonal stress generation, reduced social support, social skills deficits, and social avoidance. Recommendations are made for how cognitive‐behavioural therapy may be adapted to address such factors. Specifically, suggestions are offered for how cognitive and behavioural interventions, such as cognitive restructuring, behavioural activation, behavioural experiments, and skills training, may be used with depressed clients to promote positive relationships and reduce maladaptive interpersonal behaviours.     

Cognitive Skills as Predictor of Attitudes Toward Political Conflict: A Study of Polish Politicians

The relationship between cognitive development and attitudes toward a current political conflict was examined in a sample of 46 Polish politicians. This relationship was examined in a control group in a neutral condition and in an experimental group after participants were presented with a hostile attack on their position on the conflict. Politicians with less advanced cognitive skills tended to use competitive attitudes in both conditions. In contrast, those who possessed more advanced skills tended to use cooperative attitudes in the neutral situation; after the emotional attack, they tended to avoid further involvement in the conflict and sought to exit it. The key difference in participants' cognitive functioning was their ability to differentiate perspectives and to transcend their own point of view in the conflict.     

Risk and Religion: Toward a Theology of Risk Taking

Historically the concept of risk is rooted in Renaissance lifestyles, in which autonomous agents such as sailors, warriors, and tradesmen ventured upon dangerous enterprises. Thus, the concept of risk inseparably combines objective reality (nature) and social construction (culture): Risk = Danger + Venture. Mathematical probability theory was constructed in this social climate in order to provide a quantitative risk assessment in the face of indeterminate futures. Thus we have the famous formula: Risk = Probability (of events) × the Size (of future harms). Because the concept of harm is always observer relative, however, risk assessment cannot be purely quantitative. This leads to the question, What are the general conditions under which risks can be accepted? There is, after all, a difference between incurring a risk and bearing the costs of risks selected for by other agencies. Against this background, contours of a theology of risk emerge. If God creates a self‐organizing world of relatively autonomous agents, and if self‐organization is favored by cooperative networks of autopoietic processes, then the theological hypothesis of a risk‐taking God is at least initially plausible. Moreover, according to the Christian idea of incarnation, God is not only taking a risk but is also bearing the risks implied by the openness of creation. I thus argue for a twofold divine kenosis—in creation as well as in redemption. I discuss some objections to this view, including the serious counterargument that risk taking on behalf of others remains, even for God, a morally dubious task. What are the conditions under which the notion of a risk‐taking God can be affirmed without leaving us with the picture of God as an arbitrary, cosmic tyrant? And what are the practical implications for the ways in which human agents of faith, hope, and love can learn to cope with the risks of everyday life and of political decisions?     

不同风险态度大学生职业决策的线索偏好及信息搜索特点

探讨不同风险态度的大学生在职业决策中的线索偏好及信息搜索特点。以大学生为被试,以Weber的风险态度问卷为工具,筛选出风险寻求大学生26名,风险规避大学生23名,采用信息板技术进行模拟职业决策研究。结果发现：（1）风险寻求和风险规避大学生在职业决策中点击次数最多的职业属性均依次是工资、发展空间和兴趣;（2）在信息板的点击次数上,风险寻求被试比风险规避被试更多;在搜索模式上,风险寻求组被试和风险规避组的得分均为正值,但风险寻求组被试的得分显著高于风险规避组。因此,大学生职业决策中偏好的线索主要是工资、发展空间和兴趣;风险寻求者的信息搜索模式与风险规避者不同,风险寻求者更倾向于以选项为基础的搜索模式。     

Out in the midday Sun: Risk behaviour and optimistic beliefs among residents and visitors on tenerife

Abstract

A questionnaire was distributed to 107 local residents on a beach on the island of Tenerife and to 108 visitors from Britain and continental Europe. Measures included perceived danger of sun exposure. environmental concern. value of a suntan, optimism regarding personal risk of skin damage relative to others of one's age and gender, amount of midday sun exposure, sunscreen use and skin type. Use of sunscreen protection was greatly below recommended levels, though higher for women (N = 103). Among visitors, the British (N = 54) showed the riskiest behaviour. Relationship between behaviour. beliefs and background variables varied between groups. Overall there was a significant optimistic bias. This was stronger for the British, and for men. The relationships between optimism and other measures varied between the different national groups. In particular, among the British. greater optimism was associated with placing a higher value on a suntan, with having a more sensitive skin type, with using less adequate sunscreen protection, and with spending a (nonsignificantly) greater proportion of time exposed to the sun in the middle of the day. Among locals and visitors from continental Europe, optimism was associated with less midday exposure. It is concluded that these data offer evidence for two complementary interpretations of the relationship between optimism and health behaviour. On the one hand, those who perceive themselves to be at greater risk may be motivated to take more precautions. while risk-taking may be greater among those regard themselves as less vulnerable. On the other hand. those who take more precautions may infer that their own relative risk is lower. It is argued that research should not assume a single process relating perceived risk to behaviour, but consider factors that might predict the relative importance of alternative processes.     

决策者角色及相关变量对风险偏好的影响

采用IAT技术测查被试的内隐自尊, 并引入收益和损失两种任务框架, 综合探讨了内隐自尊水平、任务得失框架对自我决策和为他人决策时风险偏好的影响。结果发现：(1)在收益框架下, 被试为他人决策时更冒险, 而在损失框架下, 为自我和他人决策的风险偏好无显著差异; (2)与为自我决策相比, 低内隐自尊者为他人决策时更冒险, 而高内隐自尊者为自我和他人决策的风险偏好无显著差异; (3)内隐自尊水平与任务框架的交互作用及内隐自尊水平、任务框架和决策者角色之间的三级交互作用均不显著。依据相关的理论和发现对这种结果进行了分析和讨论。     

走向深层发展伦理学——贝克风险社会理论的发展伦理学意蕴

对发展伦理学而言,贝克“风险社会理论”的根本方法论意义,在于启发我们思考这样一个问题:“应该用什么方法、在什么层面上建构发展伦理学”?贝克风险社会理论对明确发展伦理学的研究视域、学理层次、研究平台等具有重要方法论启示。     

不确定性容忍度对风险偏好的影响及其情景依赖性

研究以经营店面为背景设计决策材料,采用2(不确定性容忍度:高/低)×2(损益背景:损失/获益)×2(选项描述框架:积极/消极)×3(损益概率:高/中/低)混合实验设计,探讨不同任务情景下个体不确定性容忍度对风险偏好的影响。结果发现,不确定性容忍度主效应显著,高容忍度者比低容忍度者更冒险。不确定性容忍度与损益背景交互作用显著：在损失背景下,高容忍度者比低容忍度者更冒险,在获益背景下无此效应。不确定性容忍度与选项描述框架交互作用显著：在积极框架下,高容忍度者比低容忍度者更冒险,在消极框架下无此效应。这表明,不确定性容忍度对风险偏好产生影响,但这种影响会受到损益背景和选项描述框架的调节,具有情景依赖性。     

金钱竞拍任务上的风险偏好:自尊水平和性别的作用

基于金钱-自尊交换理论,针对以往研究遗留的问题,本研究采用改编自著名的1美元竞拍游戏的实验任务,通过两个实验探索了自尊水平、竞拍者性别和竞拍对手性别对金钱竞拍中风险偏好的影响。结果表明:(1)自尊水平对金钱竞拍中的风险偏好有显著影响,中等水平自尊者表现出较高的风险偏好;(2)竞拍者性别的主效应及其与自尊水平的交互作用均不显著;(3)竞拍对手性别的主效应不显著,而与自尊水平及竞拍者性别之间的交互作用显著。依据相关的文献对上述发现进行了分析和讨论。     

Domain Specific Relationships of 2D:4D Digit Ratio in Risk Perception and Risk Behavior

The 2D:4D digit ratio (henceforth, 2D:4D) is accepted as a marker of prenatal testosterone, demonstrating gender differences. The present study reveals that 2D:4D shows not only gender differences but also individual differences in personality and risk-taking behavior. We measured individual participants’ 2D:4D, structural personality, and risk-taking attitude scores. The result of the current study replicates the gender difference in 2D:4D in previous researches. However, we found different aspects of the correlations among 2D:4D, personality, and risk-taking attitude. Path analyses indicated that 2D:4D passes through personality factors before reaching the risk-taking attitude, particularly in the financial domain activities of investing and gambling. Also we observed a specific relationship between right-hand 2D:4D and emotionality and between left-hand 2D:4D and agreeableness. Finally, we suggest multiple path models of 2D:4D and personality in risk taking depending on the domain.     

认知发展领域的抑制研究

认知发展领域的抑制研究在近20年里取得了长足进步。文章总结和分析了抑制研究的理论观点,从解释早期认知能力、解释认知老化、解释一般认知能力差异以及解释异常个体发展四个方面探讨了抑制和认知发展的关系,最后,提出了认知发展领域抑制研究的不足和未来发展趋势     

风险决策研究中的仿真气球冒险任务

仿真气球冒险任务(TheBalloonAnalogRiskTask,BART)能在实验室环境下模拟真实世界的风险情境,具有高生态性,稳定性和可靠性等优点,已经成为风险决策研究中最常用的实验范式之一。近年来,研究者发展了多种BART变体范式,对发展、健康以及精神病理等多领域的风险决策行为及其神经基础开展了广泛探索。BART任务中的风险决策加工与腹侧纹状体、前扣带皮层、脑岛、中脑及背外侧前额叶等脑区的激活相关。未来研究需要进一步完善BART任务在风险决策认知神经领域的信效度并扩展BART的应用情境。     

情绪和任务框架对自我和预期他人决策时风险偏好的影响

两个实验考察了情绪和任务框架对自我和预期他人决策时风险偏好的影响。结果表明:(1)获益框架下,悲伤情绪比愉悦情绪诱发更强的风险偏好,自我决策比预期他人决策表现出更强的风险偏好;(2)损失框架下,愉悦情绪比悲伤情绪诱发更强的风险偏好,预期他人决策比自我决策表现出更强的风险偏好;(3)在自我决策时,愉悦情绪在损失框架下比在获益框架下诱发了更强的风险偏好,悲伤情绪在获益框架下比在损失框架下诱发了更强的风险偏好;在预期他人决策时,无论是愉悦情绪还是悲伤情绪,损失框架均比获益框架诱发了更强的风险偏好。     

Sexism as a Predictor of Attitudes Toward Women in the Military and in Combat

This study examined four forms of sexist beliefs as predictors of attitudes toward women in the military and in combat. Survey data revealed that military-affiliated college students (n = 62) held more negative attitudes than civilian students (n = 254) toward women in combat, but the groups did not differ on attitudes toward women in the military. All forms of sexism contributed uniquely to the prediction of attitudes toward women in the military, and 3 forms were associated with approval of women in combat. Sexist beliefs mediated the relationship between military-affiliation status and approval of women in combat.     

Social Workers' Intervention Preferences in Cases of Parental Violence Toward Intellectually Disabled Children

Children with intellectual disabilities are at risk of being abused by family members. This study sought to identify factors influencing the intervention decisions of social workers. Fifty-nine social workers employed at welfare services participated in the study. The study used a factorial survey design describing a violent interaction between a child with intellectual disability and a parent. Professional characteristics of the workers as well as personal attitudinal characteristics had no significant effect on the preference of intervention mode. However, levels of child and parental aggression presented in the vignettes did influence the preferred intervention. Child's challenging behavior plays an important and increasing role in preferences for more intrusive and authoritative interventions, even after controlling for parental aggression.     

On the (In)Compatibility of Attitudes Toward Peace and War

Although attitudes toward peace and war are usually treated as two opposite poles of one dimension, in this article we argue that they may represent two distinct dimensions. To investigate this idea, we developed and tested a new balanced measure, the Attitudes Toward Peace and War (APW) Scale, in three studies (N = 4,742) in the United States and Denmark. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed that attitudes toward peace and war formed two distinct, though negatively related, factors. Structural equation modeling showed that antecedents of attitudes toward peace included egalitarian ideological beliefs, the values of international harmony and equality, and empathic concern for others, and consequences included intentions to engage in peace‐related activities. On the other hand, antecedents of attitudes toward war included authoritarian ideological beliefs, the values of national strength and order, and less personal distress, and consequences included intentions to engage in warlike activities. Results also showed that political affiliation had an impact on the relationship between peace and war attitudes, with conservatives less likely to find the attitudes incompatible. The findings support the view that attitudes toward peace and war represent two distinct dimensions.     

The Role of Attachment and Stigma in the Relationship Between Stress and Attitudes Toward Counseling in South Korea

Using structural equation modeling, the authors investigated the mediators between stress and attitudes toward seeking professional help among 298 undergraduate students in South Korea. Results indicated that attachment styles (avoidance and anxiety) and stigma (public and self‐stigma) mediated the relationship between stress and attitudes toward seeking help. Furthermore, public and self‐stigma had different paths depending on attachment styles related to help seeking. Regarding previous counseling experience, differences in the relationships between stress, attachment styles, stigma, and attitudes toward seeking help were evident.     

How to Make Decisions in An Uncertain World: Heuristics,Biases, and Risk Perception

From the seventies onward a large quantity of theoretical and empirical studies have investigated the heuristic principles and cognitive strategies that individuals use to deal with risky and uncertain situations. This research has shown how the explicative and predictive shortcomings of normative risk analysis depend in many respects on undervaluing the continuous interaction between the individual and the environment. There are factors that, day by day, represent significant obstacles to decision making.     

Quantification Theory in *8 of Principia Mathematica and the Empty Domain

The second printing of Principia Mathematica in 1925 offered Russell an occasion to assess some criticisms of the Principia and make some suggestions for possible improvements. In Appendix A, Russell offered *8 as a new quantification theory to replace *9 of the original text. As Russell explained in the new introduction to the second edition, the system of *8 sets out quantification theory without free variables. Unfortunately, the system has not been well understood. This paper shows that Russell successfully antedates Quine's system of quantification theory without free variables. It is shown as well, that as with Quine's system, a slight modification yields a quantification theory inclusive of the empty domain.