A Review of Functional Analysis Methods Conducted in Public School Classroom Settings

The use of functional behavior assessments (FBAs) to address problem behavior in classroom settings has increased as a result of education legislation and long-standing evidence supporting function-based interventions. Although functional analysis remains the standard for identifying behavior–environment functional relations, this component is rarely included in FBAs in practice. To address this research-to-practice gap, we searched the FBA literature to identify studies including functional analyses (FAs) conducted in students’ usual classrooms and implemented by school personnel in public school settings. FAs were defined broadly as assessments involving systematic manipulation of one or more antecedent or consequent variable to evaluate environmental influences on student problem behavior. We identified 39 studies including FAs for 88 participants. All studies were coded with regard to FA approaches and procedures as well as student, classroom, and implementer characteristics. In addition, we evaluated the extent to which FA methods in the study sample aligned with previous recommendations to address practical barriers to implementation. Results revealed a range of FA approaches that varied according to student and classroom characteristics, as well as several strategies to address implementation barriers that have been under-utilized in classroom-based FAs to date.     

Are we on the Right Course? Lessons Learned about Current FBA/BIP Practices in Schools

Schools across the nation have been charged with the task of conducting functional behavioral assessments (FBAs) to aid in the development of behavior intervention plans (BIPs) to address the challenging behavior of students with special education needs. In response, schools have initiated efforts to provide the various members of their student services and individualized education program (IEP) teams with the knowledge and training to insure compliance with the federal mandate. The current study examines the FBAs and BIPs developed by school teams across one state with regards to best practices and the requirements identified in recent litigation. Following a state-wide training effort, service team members from school districts across Wisconsin were encouraged to submit completed FBA/BIPs for a critical review (whether or not they had participated in the training). Findings suggest that the majority of the FBAs submitted displayed serious flaws. The most common problem resulted from a lack of clarity in the identification and operational definition of the target behavior or behaviors under investigation. There was a general failure to identify any effort taken by the team members to verify the hypothesized function of the behavior before attempting intervention. Perhaps most alarmingly, a significant number of the teams did not appear to take the function of the behavior identified in the FBA into consideration when developing the BIP. Teams that included members who had completed two or more days of intensive in-service education related to FBA/BIP development were found to produce better results. Readers are provided a simplified checklist for use in reviewing their own FBA/BIPs.     

Evaluation of an indirect assessment for identifying tasks for functional analysis

Although a demand analysis is helpful for identifying potential establishing operations for the functional analysis (FA) demand condition, it may not always be practical due to time constraints. A potential alternative is the Negative Reinforcement Rating Scale (NRRS), an indirect assessment tool that may serve as a time efficient alternative to a demand analysis. The experimenter assessed the reliability and validity of the NRRS for 5 individuals with autism spectrum disorder who exhibited problem behavior. Multiple types of interrater reliability were assessed across 2 informants, and NRRS outcomes were compared to a subsequent demand analysis and FA to assess its validity. Reliability was high (M = 84%) for NRRS numerical ratings of categories but low (M = 32.9%) for specific examples provided. NRRS-identified highly aversive tasks yielded better correspondence with demand analysis outcomes than did NRRS-identified less aversive tasks.     

Classroom application of a trial-based functional analysis

We evaluated a trial-based approach to conducting functional analyses in classroom settings. Ten students referred for problem behavior were exposed to a series of assessment trials, which were interspersed among classroom activities throughout the day. Results of these trial-based functional analyses were compared to those of more traditional functional analyses. Outcomes of both assessments showed correspondence in 6 of the 10 cases and partial correspondence in a 7th case. Results of the standard functional analysis suggested reasons for obtained differences in 2 cases of noncorrespondence, which were verified when portions of the trial-based functional analyses were modified and repeated. These results indicate that a trial-based functional analysis may be a viable assessment method when resources needed to conduct a standard functional analysis are unavailable. Implications for classroom-based assessment methodologies and future directions for research are discussed.     

A pragmatic trial evaluating the effectiveness of web versus live training in functional behavior assessment and interventions among special educators

This study adopted a pragmatic trial with randomization to investigate the relative effectiveness of web versus live training on special educators' competence and perceived skills in functional behavior assessments (FBA) and behavior interventions. Pragmatic trials seek to determine the effectiveness of an intervention in a real-world setting to ensure better application and generalizability in routine practice conditions. The live training group received an in-person workshop delivered in a lecture format via powerpoint slides. The web training group received asynchronous online instruction via a secure website. The same training content was delivered to both groups. Participants were randomly assigned across both instructional modalities and completed two pre- and post-test measures. Results indicated that participants (N = 104) in both groups showed a significant increase in theoretical competence of FBA and behavior interventions post training. Only participants in the live workshop group reported a significant increase in perceived skill scores. When comparing outcomes across groups, the live training group gained significantly more theoretical competence in FBA and behavior interventions than that in the web training group. These results shed light on the practical implications of online platforms for professional development among in-service teachers in behavior management for schools with children having disabilities and challenging behavior.     

The costs of suppressing stressful memories

We investigated the costs of suppressing emotional and nonemotional memories, as evidenced in response times on a concurrent sentence verification task with three levels of syntactic complexity. Participants suppressing memories of personal negative experiences (n=26) had slower response times compared to the control group (n=23) and to participants suppressing nonemotional memories (n=25) particularly on the most complex sentences. Participants suppressing nonpersonal negative experiences (n=26) did not differ from either of the other two suppression groups. Suppression failures did not differ between conditions, but failures during the sentence task were related to the intrusiveness of the memory being suppressed. The findings indicate that different kinds of memories have different suppression costs and that even successful thought suppression can impair performance on concurrent tasks, supporting Wegner's ironic processing model in which suppression attempts must compete with other ongoing tasks for scarce mental resources.     

The effectiveness of function‐based interventions to treat sleep problems,including unwanted co‐sleeping,in children with autism

This study investigated the effectiveness of functional behavioral assessment (FBA)—informed interventions for sleep problems, particularly co‐sleeping, in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Seven children, who exhibited multiple sleep problems including unwanted co‐sleeping, participated. FBA, based on information derived from interviews and parent‐recorded sleep diaries, was used to develop individualized case formulations upon which multicomponent, parent‐implemented interventions were based. These were evaluated using a single‐case, non‐concurrent multiple‐baseline‐across‐participants design. Improvements were observed across all sleep problems, including the elimination of co‐sleeping. Gains were maintained at follow‐up for five out of seven children, though two children did not complete intervention. Parents reported high levels of satisfaction with the program. FBA‐based interventions for sleep problems in children with ASD and their clinical implications are further discussed.     

A Comparison of Results and Acceptability of Functional Behavioral Assessment Procedures with a Group of Middle School Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders (E/BD)

There is currently controversy over the validity and applicability of functional behavioral assessment (FBA) procedures with students with emotional/behavioral disorders (E/BD). A set of FBA procedures, including teacher and student interviews and direct classroom observations, were carried out with eight students with disabilities (7 classified E/BD, one classified LD). Results indicated that when all three methods (teacher/student interviews, classroom observations) yielded a ranking for a function they agreed 64% of those occasions. For those situations in which there was overall disagreement there was agreement between teacher interview and classroom observations most of the time. Social validity data indicated that both students and teachers felt that the assessment procedures were a useful and productive process.     

Assessing the accuracy of the WISC-IV seven-subtest short form and the child and adolescent intellectual disability screening questionnaire in identifying intellectual disability in children

Little research has been conducted into the accuracy of abbreviated assessments in identifying children and young people with an intellectual disability (ID). The present study compared two such methods in a clinical population of individuals with (n = 106) and without (n = 170) ID: a 7-subtest short form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales for Children—fourth edition (WISC-IV) proposed by Crawford and colleagues and the Child and Adolescent Intellectual Disability Screening Questionnaire (CAIDS-Q). Both the CAIDS-Q and the WISC-IV short form had high and comparable levels of predicting group classification (88% and 91% correct classification, respectively). Both methods would appear to offer clinicians and researchers an efficient and accurate means of identifying those who are likely to have ID. The WISC-IV short form was slightly more accurate, but the CAIDS-Q may offer the advantages of being shorter to administer and having no requirement for the user to have a particular qualification or training.     

Variability in the Functions of Nonsuicidal Self-Injury: Evidence From Three Real-Time Monitoring Studies

Despite functional models of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) helping to explain why people engage in this perplexing behavior, we still lack an understanding of some of the key properties of NSSI functions. Here, we address three unanswered questions about NSSI functions: how much do distinct NSSI functions (1) vary between people over time, (2) vary within people over time, and (3) simultaneously co-occur over time? Data were drawn from three ecological momentary assessment (EMA) studies of self-injurious adult psychiatric outpatients (n = 7), community-based adolescents (n = 15), and community-based adults (n = 9). Across the three studies, there was a total of 271 NSSI episodes (all with corresponding functions captured by EMA). The vast majority (27 of 31; 87%) of participants exhibited unique patterns of NSSI functions during the monitoring periods, indicating high variability between people. The vast majority (26 of 31; 84%) of participants also showed changes in NSSI functions over time, indicating high variability within people. Although it was most common for only one function to be reported for a given NSSI episode, participants endorsed more than one function for 22% to 43% of NSSI episodes, indicating that different functions did simultaneously co-occur. These results underscore that reinforcement processes for NSSI differ from person-to-person, and are both time-varying and multifaceted, which has implications for personalized assessment and treatment of this clinical phenomenon.     

A model-based cluster analysis of social experiences in clinically anxious youth: links to emotional functioning

Social difficulties are commonly associated with anxiety disorders in youth, yet are not well specified in the literature. The aim of this study was to identify patterns of social experiences in clinically anxious children and examine the associations with indices of emotional functioning. A model-based cluster analysis was conducted on parent-, teacher-, and child-reports of social experiences with 64 children, ages 7–12 years (M = 8.86 years, SD = 1.59 years; 60.3% boys; 85.7% Caucasian) with a primary diagnosis of separation anxiety disorder, social phobia, and/or generalized anxiety disorder. Follow-up analyses examined cluster differences on indices of emotional functioning. Findings yielded three clusters of social experiences that were unrelated to diagnosis: (1) Unaware Children (elevated scores on parent- and teacher-reports of social difficulties but relatively low scores on child-reports, n = 12), (2) Average Functioning (relatively average scores across all informants, n = 44), and (3) Victimized and Lonely (elevated child-reports of overt and relational victimization and loneliness and relatively low scores on parent- and teacher-reports of social difficulties, n = 8). Youth in the Unaware Children cluster were rated as more emotionally dysregulated by teachers and had a greater number of diagnoses than youth in the Average Functioning group. In contrast, the Victimized and Lonely group self-reported greater frequency of negative affect and reluctance to share emotional experiences than the Average Functioning cluster. Overall, this study demonstrates that social maladjustment in clinically anxious children can manifest in a variety of ways and assessment should include multiple informants and methods.     

A preliminary comparison of functional analysis results when conducted in contrived versus natural settings

A preliminary evaluation of the correspondence between functional analysis outcomes across settings was conducted with 2 children who had been diagnosed with autism and who engaged in challenging behavior. Differences across settings (a therapy room and a classroom) were demonstrated in ABAB reversal designs. Three potential patterns of results that may occur when comparing functional analyses across environments are described, and one possible explanation for the occurrence of discrepancies between environments (differing learning histories within separate environments) is offered.     

Research Methods Tutor: Evaluation of a dialogue-based tutoring system in the classroom

Research Methods Tutor (RMT) is a dialogue-based intelligent tutoring system for use in conjunction with undergraduate psychology research methods courses. RMT includes five topics that correspond to the curriculum of introductory research methods courses: ethics, variables, reliability, validity, and experimental design. We evaluated the effectiveness of the RMT system in the classroom using a nonequivalent control group design. Students in three classes (n = 83) used RMT, and students in two classes (n = 53) did not use RMT. Results indicated that the use of RMT yielded strong learning gains of 0.75 standard deviations above classroom instruction alone. Further, the dialogue-based tutoring condition of the system resulted in higher gains than did the textbook-style condition (CAI version) of the system. Future directions for RMT include the addition of new topics and tutoring elements.     

Effects of session duration on functional analysis outcomes.

We examined the extent to which variations in session duration affected the outcomes of functional analyses. Forty-six individuals, all diagnosed with mental retardation and referred for assessment and treatment of self-injurious or aggressive behavior, participated in functional analyses, consisting of repeated exposure to multiple test conditions during 15-min sessions. For each set of assessment data, new data sets based on session durations of 10 and 5 min were prepared by deleting data from the last 5 and 10 min, respectively, of each session. Each graph (N = 138) was then reviewed individually by graduate students who had previous experience conducting and interpreting functional analyses, but who were blind to both participant identity and session duration. Interpretations of behavioral function based on the 10- and 5-min data sets were then compared with those based on the 15-min data sets. All of the 10-min data sets yielded interpretations identical to those based on 15-min data sets. Interpretations based on the 5-min and 15-min data sets yielded three discrepancies, all of which were the result of increased response rates toward the latter parts of sessions. These results suggest that the efficiency of assessment might be improved with little or no loss in clarity by simply reducing the duration of assessment sessions.     

Latency‐based functional analysis in schools: Correspondence and differences across environments

Functional analyses were conducted for problem behavior of three girls with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Analyses conducted under analog conditions measured rate and latency. Latency‐based functional analyses were conducted in a classroom setting in multielement and reversal designs. Correspondence was identified between the standard functional analysis and the two latency analyses for one participant. Partial correspondence was found with the other two participants. These results are discussed in light of research on adaptions for functional analysis in classroom settings.     

Pretherapy Cognitive Dispositions and Treatment Outcome in Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Insomnia

This study consisted of secondary analyses of data from 2 randomized clinical trials to test whether pretherapy cognitions predict CBT outcomes. The sample consisted of 155 primary insomnia patients with sleep maintenance complaints. Of these, 98 were randomized to CBT, 23 were assigned to progressive muscle relaxation training (PMR), and 34 were assigned to a control (sham therapy or wait-list) condition (CON). All patients completed the Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep Scale (DBAS), a sleep-related Self-Efficacy Scale (SES) and nightly sleep diaries for 2 weeks prior to receiving their assigned treatment. They then completed sleep diaries throughout an 8-week acute treatment period and during a 2-week period at a posttherapy follow-up. A subset of the sample (n = 67) also completed polysomnography immediately before and after completing their assigned treatment. Preliminary regression analyses conducted with a small subset (n = 15) of the patients receiving CBT showed those with relatively high levels of unhelpful sleep-related beliefs (Type 1 patients), as reflected by their pretherapy responses to the DBAS and SES questionnaires, showed markedly greater reductions in nocturnal wakefulness in response to CBT than did those (Type 2 patients) reporting less pronounced sleep-related beliefs. Given these findings, we used the regression equation derived from our initial analyses to dichotomize our entire sample into Type 1 (n = 82; 52.9%) and Type 2 (n = 73; 47.1%) subgroups. Subsequent comparisons showed CBT-treated Type 1 patients had significantly less wake time after sleep onset during most of the 8-week treatment phase than did the Type 1 and 2 individuals assigned to either PMR or CON. Relative to patients assigned to the PMR and CON conditions, CBT-treated Type 1 patients showed better performance across multiple subjective and objective benchmarks of clinically significant improvement, whereas the CBT-treated Type 2 patients did not. Results suggest that insomnia patients' pretherapy cognitive dispositions predict CBT outcome, and those with a pronounced sense of sleep-related helplessness are best suited for this treatment which targets this cognitive stance.