Gender-Typed and Non-Gender-Typed Category Awareness in Toddlers

Thirty toddlers (15 boys, 15 girls) participatedin a sequential touching task to examine their awarenessof own-sex and other-sex gender-typed, andnongender-typed, categories. Twenty-, 24-, and28-month-olds' awareness of gender-typed and non-gender-typedcategories were tested with contrasts of masculine,feminine, ball, and block categories. Toddlers' accuracyat labeling sex was also measured. Toddlers' patterns of touching to both nongender-typed (balls,blocks)and gender-typed (masculine toys, feminine toys)categories exceeded chance. Consistent with genderschema theory and research, boys and girls showedgreater than chance patterns of sequential touching toown-sexgender-typed category items, but notto other-sexgendertyped ones. Contrary to predictions, toddlers whocould accurately label sex (i.e., gender label) did not demonstrate greater sequential touchingof masculine or feminine gender-typed category itemsthan toddlers who could notgender label. Results suggesttoddlers possess greater awareness of gendertyped categories, particularly own-sex gender-typedones, than previously suggested. Additionally, toddlers'awareness of gender-typed categories does not appearrelated to their abilities to label accurately the sexes.     

Sex differences in children's discrepant perceptions of peer acceptance

Sex differences in children's play patterns during middle childhood are thought to promote greater awareness of social acceptance among girls compared with boys. The present study posited that girls are more discerning of peer acceptance than are boys; however, these sex differences were predicted to vary depending on how discrepant perceptions were assessed (i.e., inaccuracy versus bias). Additional differences were expected if children perceived acceptance by same- versus opposite-sex peers. Participants were 912 third through fifth graders (420 girls and 492 boys). Consistent with predictions, boys were more inaccurate than girls, but only for perceived acceptance by same-sex peers. As expected, girls were more negatively biased than boys, but only for perceived acceptance by opposite-sex peers. Results did not support the hypothesis that boys have more positively biased perceptions of peer acceptance than girls. Overall, these findings raise important issues regarding the evaluation of children's discrepant self-perceptions of peer acceptance.     

Ethnic and sex differences in occupational stereotyping by elementary school children

As part of the formative evaluation of an educational television and print package, fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade public school Black, Hispanic, and Anglo children were surveyed regarding career choice and perceptions of the appropriateness of selected occupations for male and female adults and children. Responses were analyzed by ethnic membership and sex. Results indicated that in general Hispanic and Anglo girls chose more non traditional, higher-status occupations than Black girls. For boys, however, there was no clear interaction between sex and ethnic group in career choice. Girls and boys in all three ethnic groups indicated preference for careers stereotyped for their own sex, although girls—particularly Anglo girls—showed a greater tendency to cross sex-stereotyped lines. In addition, while both girls and boys in all three groups stereotyped as appropriate only for females those occupations regarded as traditionally female, traditionally male occupations were stereotyped more frequently by boys than by girls, who tended to consider them appropriate for both sexes. No differences appeared between ethnic groups in boys' responses to male and female adult occupations. In general Black girls tended to hold the most stereotypic views of job appropriateness, while Hispanic girls did not show a clear trend. Black boys tended to stereotype more than the other two groups with reference to child jobs on a boy-stereotype scale. Some differences also appeared in both boys' and girls' responses on the basis of a median split between high and low stereotypers on boy and girl child-job stereotype scales. In general, subjects who stereotyped child jobs tended also to stereotype adult occupations, suggesting a link between the child's current experience and the more remote world of adults. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Children's sex-role preferences: Stronger among girls than boys

Criticisms were raised about methods used in previous studies which have led to the conclusion that, compared to boys, girls have weaker preferences for their own versus the opposite sex role. In addition, it was argued that if children's own conceptions of sex roles — rather than an a priori adult definition — were investigated, girls would prefer their conception of femininity more than boys would prefer their conception of masculinity. This argument rested on evidence that for children, masculine traits often meet with social disapproval. Results indicated that both boys and girls judged their own sex role as more desirable than the opposite sex role. Results were stronger for the girls; and girls judged traits they assigned to the feminine sex role to be, on the average, more desirable than boys judged traits they assigned to masculinity. The difference between present findings and previous findings in regard to children and adults was discussed.Dennis Quintana assisted with the initial selection of items for the questionnaires described below. Elizabeth Bates, Ph.D., offered helpful suggestions for rewriting an earlier draft of this paper.     

Relationships between child-rearing practices and primary school children's functional adjustment in the People's Republic of China

The aim of this study was to examine Chinese mothers' child-rearing practices with boys and girls and to relate these to teachers' ratings of children's functional adjustment in school. The sample consisted of 290 4th grade primary school children (mean age 10.3) in Beuing, the People's Republic of China. Results indicated that the questionnaires—developed in a Western culturc—gave quite meaningful information when used with the Chinese subjects. The findings were well in line with the impressions of Westerns observers that the Chinese child-rearing is restrictive. The Chinese children, especially girls, seemed to have few adjustment problems. The correlations between mothers' child-rearing practices and teachers' ratings of children's functional adjustment showed few significant relationships. The sex differences in children's functional adjustment were interpreted to reflect genetic variations in basic predispositions in boys and girls, which had been subtly enlarged by more or less clear, sex-linked differences in environmental conditions.     

Increasing purposeful activity of severely and profoundly mentally-handicapped adults

A time-series reversal design was used to evaluate the effect of a ‘room manager’ procedure on the level of purposeful activity of severely and profoundly mentally-handicapped people in a residential home. The room manager procedure consisted of systematic prompts to participate in recreational activity and social reinforcement contingent on engagement. Data were collected on group and individual client behaviour and two measures of staff performance were taken to assess whether the procedure was implemented consistently across subjects and in line with the experimental design. The results showed that, as well as a group of subjects who engaged at a higher level during the room manager condition, there were consistently ‘high-engaging’ and ‘low-engaging’ groups, reflecting in part the general level of ability of the subjects. However, data on the independent variables show that the the contingency of staff contact did not vary across conditions and it cannot therefore be assumed that these subjects would not respond to the intervention. Some limitations of the procedure as used are discussed, and areas where further work is needed are indicated.     

Adult sex role orientation and perceptions of aggressive interactions between girls and boys

We explored how the sex role orientation of adult observers related to their perceptions of boys' and girls' aggression. Sex-typed and androgynous undergraduate subjects viewed videotaped scenes in which one member of a girl-boy pair behaved aggressively toward the other. Unlike androgynous subjects, sex-typed subjects judged boys' aggression to be more intentional than girls' and proposed more severe reprimands for aggressive boys than for aggressive girls. Androgynous subjects recommended more severe reprimands for aggressive girls than sex-typed subjects did. Overall, sex-typed subjects differed from androgynous subjects not in their assessment of the degree of aggressiveness boys and girls expressed, but in their perceptions of the purposefulness of boys' and girls' aggression and how harshly to respond to it. We speculated that sex-typed subjects did not consider girls' aggression to be serious enough to warrant severe reprimands. Thus, during socialization, sex-typed adults perhaps model less aggression in response to girls' aggressive acts than to boys'. In addition, sex-typed adults may convey to girls that their aggression is not an effective means of obtaining adult intervention.     

Development of sex biases in children: 40 years later

Children in grades 2–10 (200 of each sex) assigned desirable and undesirable traits to girls or boys. Half the subjects had an additional option of both sexes. Children in all grades assigned more desirable traits to their own sex and more undesirable traits to the opposite sex, in line with Smith (1939). Both sexes became less positive toward their own sex and more positive toward the opposite sex with increasing age. This pattern also had characterized girls in Smith's study, whereas, boys had shown the opposite pattern. Beginning in the sixth grade, girls were more apt than boys to assign desirable traits to their own sex. Availability of the “both sexes” option decreased stereotyping, especially in girls.     

Mothers,fathers, sons,and daughters: Are there sex differences in the organization of secure base behavior during early childhood

Recent empirical studies reporting sex differences in attachment relationships have prompted investigators to consider why and under what conditions such results might be observed. This study was designed to explore possibilities of identifying sex differences in the organization of attachment-relevant behavior during early childhood. Observations of 119 children (59 boys) with their mothers and (separately) with their fathers were completed and children were described using the AQS. Results indicated that girls and boys did not differ with respect to global attachment security but at more specific level analyses revealed differences between parents that reflected differences in the behaviors of girls vs. boys with mothers and fathers. Our findings contradict arguments from evolutionary psychologists claiming that sex differences in attachment organization arise during middle childhood. By adopting an attachment measure sensitive to the possibility of behavioral sex differences our data suggest that such differences may be detectable earlier in development. Moreover, these differences are subtle and nuanced and do not suggest large sex differences in attachment security per se.     

Sex differences in relational and overt aggression in the late elementary school years

Sex differences in relational and overt aggression among 3rd (n=176), 4th (n=179), and 5th graders (n=145) from three public schools (n=500; 278 girls) were examined. Nominations of relational aggression increased over time among 4th and 5th grade girls, but not among boys or 3rd grade girls. Among 3rd graders, boys received more nominations for relational aggression than girls. By the end of the 5th grade, girls received more relational aggression nominations than boys. There was also a significant rise in nominations of overt aggression among 5th grade girls, but not among 5th grade boys or younger boys and girls. As expected, boys were more likely than girls to be nominated for overt aggression at all grade levels. The findings are helpful for explaining inconsistencies of earlier research pertaining to sex differences in relational aggression and for advancing our understanding of the causes of aggression. Aggr. Behav. 36:282–291, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Sex differences in children's trust in peers

Children in kindergarten, second, and fourth grades were required to judge how much they trusted each of their peers (classmates). A same sex pattern of peer trust was found; boys trusted boys more than they trusted girls, and girls trusted girls more than they trusted boys. This pattern of peer trust was evident in fourth- and second-grade children but not in kindergarten children. It was proposed that the same sex pattern of trust serves to reinforce and maintain the same sex pattern of peer relationships in children.     

Preliminary examination of sex differences in depressive symptoms among adolescent psychiatric inpatients: the role of anxious symptoms and generalized negative affect.

Assessed the emerging view that generalized negative affect and anxious symptoms are important in understanding sex differences in depressive symptoms. Sixty-three adolescent psychiatric inpatients (32 boys, 31 girls), ages 12 to 16 (M = 13.87, SD = 1.36), completed measures of positive and negative affect and anxious and depressive symptoms. Results demonstrated, as predicted, that depressive and anxious symptoms were more highly associated in adolescent girls than boys. Furthermore, girls with depressive symptoms were more likely to have comorbid anxious symptoms than boys with depressive symptoms. Sex differences were not found for adolescents with specific depressive symptoms and specific anxious symptoms (i.e., the absence of comorbidity). Our findings supported the possibility that sex differences in pure forms of depression are overestimated and that comorbid internalizing conditions may be more prevalent in adolescent girls than boys.     

Aetiology of spider phobia: classificatory differences between two origins instruments

The origins of fear of spiders was investigated in 33 spider phobic Ss entering a treatment study. All Ss completed Menzies and Clarke's (1993a) Origins Questionnaire (OQ) (Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 355–365) and Öst and Hugdahl's (1981) Phobic Origins Questionnaire (POQ) (Behaviour Research and Therapy, 19, 439–447). The results for the individual questionnaires were similar to those reported in previous studies. However a comparison of assignments of origin category for the two questionnaires showed widely discrepant results. The POQ returned 17 positive responses for classical conditioning, the OQ only 2. By contrast the OQ returned 10 origins as ‘non-conditioning traumatic event’, 9 of which returned positive responses for classical conditioning on the POQ. A further 15 Ss on the OQ were categorised as ‘always been this way’, the preponderance of these being classified as vicarious or informational in origin on the POQ. The POQ does not have a specific question or category for non-associative acquisition of phobias. The results of the origins assignments are detailed and their relation to the structure and questions of the questionnaires is outlined. Past studies using the POQ have produced results supporting acquisition of a substantial proportion of phobias by classical conditioning. The findings of this study suggest that such results mainly reflect inherent bias in that instrument.     

The role of brothers and sisters in the gender development of preschool children

The study examined whether the sex of older siblings influences the gender role development of younger brothers and sisters of age 3 years. Data on the Pre-School Activities Inventory, a measure of gender role behavior that discriminates within as well as between the sexes, were obtained in a general population study for 527 girls and 582 boys with an older sister, 500 girls and 561 boys with an older brother, and 1665 singleton girls and 1707 singleton boys. It was found that boys with older brothers and girls with older sisters were more sex-typed than same-sex singletons who, in turn, were more sex-typed than children with other-sex siblings. Having an older brother was associated with more masculine and less feminine behavior in both boys and girls, whereas boys with older sisters were more feminine but not less masculine and girls with older sisters were less masculine but not more feminine.     

Sex-related differences in the relationship between sibling status and responsivity to babies

Ninety-six middle-class subjects equally divided by age (4–5, 8–9, and 14–15 years), sex, and the presence or absence of younger siblings in the family were studied in two situations which assessed their interest in babies: responsivity to an unfamiliar baby in a waiting room situation and reactions to pictures of babies. Subjects' birth order does not affect degree of interest, only mode of expression. These findings held for boys, but not girls. Regardless of age, boys without younger siblings expressed their interest in babies in more distal, cautious ways. The results were discussed in terms of the contention that birth order effects are best understood as distinctive for each sex, especially when sex-role-related behavior is being investigated.This project was supported by funds from the Boys Town Center for the Study of Youth at Stanford. We are indebted to Barbara Aschenbrenner for her assistance in all phases of this study.     

Infant sex differences: Ecological effects

Mothers and their firstborn. year-old infants (30 girls, 30 boys) were observed during two counterbalanced situations. In the nonavailability situation, mothers were not to initiate interaction; during free play, mothers were free to interact. As in previous studies, sex differences in infant touching and proximity seeking appeared, dependent here upon the level of interaction, with girls higher on both measures. Boys and girls did not differ during free play. Sex differences in maternal behavior were rare in either situation. Moreover, the pattern of associations between maternal and infant behavior changed as the level of interaction changed. Maternal availability, manipulated by experimental instructions, should be considered as a factor in interpreting investigations of early sex differences.     

Biases in ratings of disruptive behavior in children: effects of sex and negative halos

OBJECTIVE: Behavior disorders are more prevalent among boys than girls, but the etiology of this difference is unclear. Studies have not tested for sex bias in ratings as a contributing factor to the differential sex prevalence rates. However, there are several studies showing "negative halo effects" in ratings of boys (i.e., the presence of one type of behavior artificially inflating ratings of another behavior). These findings have only been extended to girls in one recent study. The current study is designed to test for sex difference in (a) ratings of boys and girls who exhibit the same degree of disruptive behavior and (b) negative halo effects. METHOD: Two hundred and thirty-nine college students participated. Sex differences in ratings are not found. Nonetheless, bidirectional negative halo effects are found for boys and girls (i.e., the presence of oppositionality artificially increased ratings of inattention and hyperactivity; the presence of inattention and hyperactivity artificially increased oppositionality).     

Sex differences in math performance: The role of children's approach to schoolwork

This research examined whether the tendency for girls to outperform boys in the classroom is due to differences in how girls and boys approach schoolwork. In 5th grade and then again in 7th grade, children (N=518) reported on how they approach schoolwork (i.e., achievement goals and classroom behavior), their learning strategies, and their self-efficacy in math; math grades and achievement test scores were also collected. Girls were more likely than boys to hold mastery over performance goals and to refrain from disruptive classroom behavior, which predicted girls' greater effortful learning over time. The sex difference in learning strategies accounted for girls' edge over boys in terms of grades. Girls did not do better on achievement tests, possibly because self-efficacy, for which there was also no sex difference, was the central predictor of performance on achievement tests.     

Preferences for ‘Gender‐typed’ Toys in Boys and Girls Aged 9 to 32 Months

Many studies have found that a majority of boys and girls prefer to play with toys that are typed to their own gender but there is still uncertainty about the age at which such sex differences first appear, and under what conditions. Applying a standardized research protocol and using a selection of gender‐typed toys, we observed the toy preferences of boys and girls engaged in independent play in UK nurseries, without the presence of a parent. The 101 boys and girls fell into three age groups: 9 to 17 months, when infants can first demonstrate toy preferences in independent play (N = 40); 18 to 23 months, when critical advances in gender knowledge occur (N = 29); and 24 to 32 months, when knowledge becomes further established (N = 32). Stereotypical toy preferences were found for boys and girls in each of the age groups, demonstrating that sex differences in toy preference appear early in development. Both boys and girls showed a trend for an increasing preference with age for toys stereotyped for boys. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed with regard to biological predispositions, cognitive development and environmental influences on toy preference. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.