对角线元素与不同复杂度的系统的关系

<正>对角线方法是指德国学者康托尔 ( G. Cantor) 在证明实数集不可数时所运用的一种技术方法。在这种意义上,康托尔的实数集不可数论本身便是对角线方法的一种重要运用。此外,对角线方法还有两种重要运用,即哥德尔对角线定理和汤姆逊引理的证明。哥德尔对角线定理又叫 "哥德尔自指定     

On Gratitude to Nature

In this article, I argue that it cannot be fitting to be grateful to nature. I start by arguing that gratitude to someone/something can be fitting even if they do not intentionally benefit one. I then argue that a recent view on which it can be fitting to be grateful to nature faces counterexamples. Finally, I argue that it cannot be fitting to be grateful to nature, because it is fitting to be grateful to someone/something only if they manifest the right kind of goodwill or care toward one. In particular, I argue that it is fitting to be grateful to someone/something only if they manifest a level of final care toward one beyond what can be legitimately expected or demanded of them. However, because nature does not manifest any level of goodwill or care, it cannot be fitting to be grateful to nature. I end by noting that it can still be fitting to be grateful that certain things are true about nature (e.g. that it provides many benefits to humans).     

Failed-Art and Failed Art-Theory

An object being non-art appears only trivially informative. Some non-art objects, however, could be saliently ‘almost’ art, and therefore objects for which being non-art is non-trivially informative. I call these kinds of non-art objects ‘failed-art’ objects—non-art objects aetiologically similar to art-objects, diverging only in virtue of some relevant failure. I take failed-art to be the right sort of thing, to result from the right sort of action, and to have the right sort of history required to be art, but to be non-art by having failure where being art requires success. I assume that for something to be art that thing must be the product of intention-directed action. I then offer an account of attempts that captures the success conditions governing the relationship between intention-directed actions and their products. From this, I claim that to be failed-art is to be the product of a failed art-attempt, i.e., to be non-art as the result of the particular way in which that art-attempt failed. An art-attempt I take to be an attempt with success conditions, that, if satisfied, entail the satisfaction of the conditions for being art—whatever those may be. To be art, then, is to be the product of a successful art-attempt. As such, any art theory incompatible with my account of failed-art is an art theory for which the notions of success and failure do not matter, and therefore an art theory for which being art needn't be substantively intention-dependent. So, any theory of art unable to accommodate my account of failed-art is ipso facto false.     

Evaluation of the effectiveness of suicide prevention programs: a methodological perspective

Many studies that attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment programs for suicidal patients are methodologically deficient in one or more areas. This paper outlines six criteria that should be met in designing such investigations: Patients should be randomly assigned to groups; at least 80% of the subjects who were initially enrolled should be followed up; the results should be both statistically significant and clinically important; all clinically relevant outcomes should be reported; the patients must be adequately described; and the new intervention should be feasible in other settings. It is shown that these criteria are both necessary and achievable.     

对医学基础研究中“确凿证据”的认识

医学基础研究中得到的确切可靠、无可辩驳的结论,可称为“确凿证据”。其重要性在于能对“一般证据”做出判断;可据此设计实验,提出并验证假说。所以准确判断十分重要,判断错误将误导实验,延缓实验进程。可分为两类：直接可见的结果或是经过严密实验设计得出的结论。我们要慎重判断“确凿证据”,也要善于利用其得出结论。     

Whatever it is better to be than not to be

The Anselmian claim that God is that than which a greater cannot be thought in virtue of being ‘whatever it is better to be than not to be’ may be accused of incoherence or even unintelligibility. By proposing a non-relative but apparently meaningful analysis thereof, I attempt to defend it against such criticism. In particular, I argue that ‘whatever it is better to be than not to be’ can be plausibly interpreted so as to imply very many attributes traditionally predicated of that than which a greater cannot be thought. Central to this line of reasoning is the assumption that whatever is an actual moral being is greater, simpliciter, than whatever is not an actual moral being.     

Objectivist conditions for defeat and evolutionary debunking arguments

I make a case for distinguishing clearly between subjective and objective accounts of undercutting defeat and for rejecting a hybrid view that takes both subjective and objective elements to be relevant for whether or not a belief is defeated. Moderate subjectivists claim that taking a belief to be defeated is sufficient for the belief to be defeated; subjectivist idealists add that if an idealised agent takes a belief to be defeated then the belief is defeated. Subjectivist idealism evades some of the objections levelled against moderate subjectivism but can be shown to yield inconsistent results in some cases. Both subjectivisms should be rejected. We should be objectivists regarding undercutting defeat. This requirement, however, is likely to be problematic for a popular interpretation of evolutionary debunking arguments in metaethics as it can be shown that existing objectivist accounts of defeat do not support such arguments. I end by discussing the constraints of developing such an account.     

Problems for Linguistic Solutions to the Paradox of Analysis

G. E. Moore opined that the paradox of analysis might be avoided if it could be shown that sentences expressing conceptual analyses convey information not only about concepts, but also about the expressions they use. If so, "to be a brother is to be a male sibling" and "to be a brother is to be a brother" might express the same proposition, and yet not be identical in information value as the paradox suggests. How sentences might do this, Moore could not see. Many philosophers have pointed out an obvious way in which sentences might be said to convey information about the expressions they use. Some have suggested this information might be used to develop Moore's intuition and resolve the paradox of analysis. I argue that this approach fails. I present a version of the paradox of analysis that resists this sort of solution.     

Commentary on "Patients as 'subjects' or 'objects'

I believe that the main policies that should be stressed in situations involving trainees in patient care are: 1) there must be good supervision of the trainees; and 2) there must be openness in responding to patient questions as to what parts of a procedure will be done by trainees and how experienced the trainees may be. I do not agree with the authors that every part of every procedure or overall treatment conducted by residents or interns needs to be described to every patient and that patients' permission must be sought for each arrangement.     

论我国刑法妨害传染病防治罪的完善

认为妨害传染病防治罪的可罚范围有待拓宽,应将一些乙类传染病和其他突发性强、致死率高的传染病纳入本罪规制的范围;行为方式有待明确,运用刑法典与附属刑法相配合的立法模式是一种较为理想的做法;刑罚设置上有待进一步完善,增加罚金刑的适用,对后果特别严重的情形可以结果加重犯来处理。     

The metric‐frequency measure of similarity for ill‐structured data sets,with an application to family therapy

Similarity measures have been studied extensively in many domains, but usually with well‐structured data sets. In many psychological applications, however, such data sets are not available. It often cannot even be predicted how many items will be observed, or what exactly they will entail. This paper introduces a similarity measure, called the metric‐frequency (MF) measure, that can be applied to such data sets. If it is not known beforehand how many items will be observed, then the number of items actually observed in itself carries information. A typical feature of the MF is that it incorporates such information. The primary purpose of our measure is that it should be pragmatic, widely applicable, and tractable, even if data are complex. The MF generalizes Tversky's set‐theoretic measure of similarity to cases where items may be present or absent and at the same time can be numerical as with Shepard's metric measure, but need not be so. As an illustration, we apply the MF to family therapy where it cannot be predicted what issues the clients will raise in therapy sessions. The MF is flexible enough to be applicable to idiographic data.     

On Applying Applied Philosophy

If 'applied philosophy'is really to be applied it is necessary for its practical implications to be spelled out in some detail: both the specific goals implied if not entailed, and the life-style that would be expected to support such goals. To be as specific as this would only be to emulate the ancient Greek philosophers whose influence may still be discerned and is often claimed. Contributions to a recent issue of this Journal are taken as a basis for the discussion.     

Defending Evidence‐Resistant Beliefs

There is a view in the literature around beliefs that evidence responsiveness is a necessary feature of beliefs. The reasoning is that because beliefs are governed by truth they must be evidence responsive. A mental state that fails to be evidence responsive, therefore, could not be a belief as it could not be governed by truth. The implication is that even those evidence‐resistant mental states that appear to be beliefs are in fact something else. I argue that evidence resistance is a feature of at least some beliefs, so evidence responsiveness cannot be a necessary feature of belief.     

Assessing the costs, benefits, cost-effectiveness, and cost-benefit of psychological assessment: we should, we can, and here's how

To the extent that assessment improves the effectiveness of treatment, prevention, or other services, it can be said to be effective. If an assessment is as effective as alternatives for improving treatment and less costly, it can be said to be cost-effective. If that improvement in the effectiveness of the service is monetary or monetizable, the assessment can be judged beneficial. And, if the sum of monetary and monetizable benefits of assessment exceeds the sum of the costs of treatment, the assessment can be said to be cost-beneficial. An overview of cost-related issues is followed by practical strategies that researchers and administrators can use to measure incremental costs, incremental effectiveness, and incremental benefits of adding psychological assessments to other psychological interventions.     

A multidimensional item response model: Constrained latent class analysis using the gibbs sampler and posterior predictive checks

In this paper it will be shown that a certain class of constrained latent class models may be interpreted as a special case of nonparametric multidimensional item response models. The parameters of this latent class model will be estimated using an application of the Gibbs sampler. It will be illustrated that the Gibbs sampler is an excellent tool if inequality constraints have to be taken into consideration when making inferences. Model fit will be investigated using posterior predictive checks. Checks for manifest monotonicity, the agreement between the observed and expected conditional association structure, marginal local homogeneity, and the number of latent classes will be presented.This paper is supported by grant S40-645 of the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).     

Aristotle on Modality: Nicholas DenyerNever Will and Cannot

In De Caelo 1: 11-12 Aristotle argued that whatever is and always will be true is necessarily true. His argument works, once we grant him the highly plausible principle that if something is true, then it can be false if and only if it can come to be false. For example, assume it true that the sun is and always will be hot. No proposition of this form can ever will be hot. No proposition of this form can ever come to be false. Hence this proposition cannot be false. Hence it is necessarily true, and so too is anything that follows from it. In particular, it is necessarily true that the sun is hot. Moreover, if the sun not only is and always will be hot, but also always has been, then it follows by similar reasoning that the sun not only cannot now fail to be hot, but also never could have failed. Anything everlastingly true is therefore, in the strictest sense of the term, necessarily true.     

The other other: when the exotic other subjugates the familiar other

In this paper, the theme of the other will be examined and it will be argued that it is important to differentiate between two distinct types of other--the 'exotic' other which is distant and very different from the subject, and the 'familiar' other which is closer to the subject. The dynamic relationship between these two others will be investigated, and emphasis will be given to the process through which the exotic other tends to subjugate the familiar other. This relationship will then be discussed in its various applied forms, in the contexts of clinical practice and socio-political dimensions. In particular, a new reading of Jung's approach to the 'primitive' will be developed, based on the subjugation of the 'familiar' other by the 'exotic' other. A similar line of investigation will be followed to examine the concept of psychological trauma. In addition, Freud's 'narcissism of minor differences' and Bion's distinction between 'narcissism' and 'socialism' will be considered in the light of this differentiation between these two others.     

Prisonomics and the use of psychotropic drugs on incarcerated offenders: ethical considerations

The authors discuss the ethical considerations involved in using psychotropic medications with incarcerated offenders. Medications cannot be used as tool of oppression. Medication cannot be used to justify overpopulation, to quietly terminate prisoners, and must be administered by licensed health professionals. There must be informed consent.     

Crying in the Counselling Situation

Crying is a natural response which may be hindered by learned social inhibitions. The counsellor's embarrassment or uncertainty about how to respond may also be a block. If it is suspected that the crying is a diversion or manipulative act, this must be discussed. In general, however, expressing emotions openly may be an important learning experience. Requests to explain during crying are often unhelpful, and attempts atphysical comforting may be suppressive. The act of weeping may be an important stage for clients who are having to gain, or regain, contact with their own experience and feelings as they develop a proactive approach to managing their future.