概称句推理与排序

概称句推理可分为主要通过演绎方式的和主要通过归纳方式的。对于演绎方式进行的推理又可根据研究关注点的不同分为结论是事实句的推理和结论是概称旬的推理。由于概称句的作用,这三种类型的推理都是非单调推理。通过分别的考察,本文指出,这三种类型的概称句推理要想真正得以刻画,都需要引入前提集的排序的概念。进而,排序将是融合这三种类型推理的纽带。     

Translating the hypergame paradox: Remarks on the set of founded elements of a relation

In Zwicker (1987) the hypergame paradox is introduced and studied. In this paper we continue this investigation, comparing the hypergame argument with the diagonal one, in order to find a proof schema. In particular, in Theorems 9 and 10 we discuss the complexity of the set of founded elements in a recursively enumerable relation on the set N of natural numbers, in the framework of reduction between relations. We also find an application in the theory of diagonalizable algebras and construct an undecidable formula.     

Topological duality for distributive Ockham algebras

In this note, we give a representation of distributive Ockham algebras via natural hom-functors. In order to do this, we describe two different structures (one algebraic, and the other order-topological) on the set of subsets of the natural numbers. The topological duality previously obtained by A. Urquhart is used throughout.     

Extensive measurement with incomparability

Standard theories of extensive measurement assume that the objects to be measured form a complete order with respect to the relevant property. In this paper, representation and uniqueness theorems are presented for a theory that departs radically from this completeness assumption. It is first shown that any quasi-order on a countable set can be represented by vectors of real numbers. If such an order is supplemented by a concatenation operator, yielding a relational structure that satisfies a set of axioms similar to the standard axioms for an extensive structure, we obtain a scale possessing the crucial properties of a ratio scale. Incomparability is thus compatible with extensive measurement. The paper ends with a brief discussion on some possible applications and developments of this result.     

Weak Consistency for Ensuring Priority Vectors Reliability

Consistency and transitivity are important and leading research topics in the study of decision‐making in terms of pairwise comparison matrices. In this paper, we search for conditions that, in case of inconsistency, guarantee ordinal compatibility between ordinal ranking (actual ranking) derived from a transitive matrix and cardinal rankings provided by the most usual priority vectors proposed in the scientific literature. We provide the notion of weak consistency; it is a condition weaker than consistency and stronger than transitivity and ensures that vectors associated with a matrix, by means of a strictly increasing synthesis functional, provide a preference order, on the related set of decision elements, equal to the actual ranking. This notion extends, to the case in which the decision‐maker can be indifferent between two or more alternatives/criteria, weak consistency introduced in previous papers under constraint of no indifference. Finally, we introduce an order relation on the rows of the matrix, that is, a simple order if and only if weak consistency is satisfied; this simple order allows us to easily determine the actual ranking on the set of decision elements. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Systemic Practice

In this paper we propose to develop a methodology, based on a set of isomorphic patterns of practice, for studying the operational competencies of systemic therapists. By attending to the therapists' actions at the level of practice, we have identified unifying principles that run across the different models of systemic family therapy. This is a pattern of action that we call "systemic practice." In order to show the application of this methodology in the art of practice, we have analyzed excerpts from two videotaped sessions.     

On the Innocence and Determinacy of Plural Quantification

Plural logic is widely assumed to have two important virtues: ontological innocence and determinacy. It is claimed to be innocent in the sense that it incurs no ontological commitments beyond those already incurred by the first‐order quantifiers. It is claimed to be determinate in the sense that it is immune to the threat of non‐standard (Henkin) interpretations that confronts higher‐order logics on their more traditional, set‐based semantics. We challenge both claims. Our challenge is based on a Henkin‐style semantics for plural logic that does not resort to sets or set‐like objects to interpret plural variables, but adopts the view that a plural variable has many objects as its values. Using this semantics, we also articulate a generalized notion of ontological commitment which enables us to develop some ideas of earlier critics of the alleged ontological innocence of plural logic.     

Attentional capture by object appearance and disappearance

In two experiments we examined whether the appearance of a new object has attentional priority over disappearance. Previous failures to show differences are possibly due to onsets and offsets always being presented as a sole visual transient. Rather than presenting each alone, we presented onset and offset singletons simultaneously with a display-wide luminance transient in order to force each to compete with other visual events. Results from Experiment 1 showed that targets associated with onsets accrued a reaction time benefit whilst targets associated with offsets did not. Experiment 2 showed that onsets attracted attention even when observers were attentionally set to look for offset. By contrast, offsets needed a relevant attentional set in order to attract attention. We argue that the appearance of an object has attentional priority over disappearance.     

The Mereological Foundation of Megethology

In Mathematics is megethology (Lewis (1993). Philosophia Mathematica, 1(1), 3–23) David K. Lewis proposes a structuralist reconstruction of classical set theory based on mereology. In order to formulate suitable hypotheses about the size of the universe of individuals without the help of set-theoretical notions, he uses the device of Boolos’ plural quantification for treating second order logic without commitment to set-theoretical entities. In this paper we show how, assuming the existence of a pairing function on atoms, as the unique assumption non expressed in a mereological language, a mereological foundation of set theory is achievable within first order logic. Furthermore, we show how a mereological codification of ordered pairs is achievable with a very restricted use of the notion of plurality without plural quantification.     

Is modesty a subdomain of humility?

Although many scholars have sharply distinguished humility from modesty, several research teams recently conceptualized modesty as a subdomain of humility. In the present study, we compare these competing conceptualizations using confirmatory factor analyses. In Study 1, a model with general humility (i.e. second-order factor) predicting the subscales of the Relational Humility Scale (RHS) and the Modesty facet of the HEXACO-PI showed adequate fit; and modesty showed one of the stronger factor loadings on the higher order factor. In Study 2, we used a set of items designed to sharpen the potential distinction between modesty (i.e. interpersonal behavior involving moderating attention to self) and humility. Then, we tested a model with a general humility factor (i.e. second-order factor) predicting subscales of the RHS and modesty items. Once again, modesty items loaded strongly on the higher order factor.     

Part‐set cuing of texts,scenes, and matrices

In four experiments, we extended the study of part‐set cuing to expository texts and pictorial scenes. In Experiment 1, recall of expository text was tested with and without part‐set cues in the same order as the original text; cues strongly impaired recall. Experiment 2 repeated Experiment 1 but used cues in random order and found significant but reduced impairment with cuing. Experiments 3 and 4 examined the part‐set cuing of objects presented in a scene or matrix and found virtually no effect of cuing. More objects were recalled from the scene than from the matrix, indicating that the scene's organization aided memory, but the cues did not assist recall. These results extend the domains in which part‐set cues have either impaired or failed to improve recall. Implications for education and eyewitness accounts are briefly considered.     

The strategic use of alternative representations in arithmetic word problem solving

Multiple-step arithmetic problems can be solved by diverse strategies depending on the mental representation constructed by individuals from the situation described in the text of the problem. This representation will indeed determine the organization of subgoals to be reached or in other words the order of completion of calculations. This study aims at determining the conditions under which specific strategies are set up by adults. Using a paradigm that allows us to assess when calculations are performed, we show that adults usually organize their subgoals as they are explicitly mentioned in the problem, even though a strategy that is less demanding on working memory could have been used. However, we show that increasing the difficulty of the problem leads individuals to set up more economic strategies. Moreover, these economic strategies are even more likely to be used when the cognitive cost of the construction of the representation they rely on is low.     

Effects of memory load on visual search

It remains unclear how memory load affects attentional processes in visual search (VS). No effects, as well as beneficial and detrimental effects of memory load, have been found in this type of task. The main goal of the present research was to explore whether memory load has a modulating effect on VS by means of a different attentional set induced by the order of trials (mixed vs. blocked) and by the time presentation of visual display (long vs. short). In Experiment 1, we randomized the order of type of trial (5, 10 and 15 items presented in the display) while it remained constant (10 items) in Experiments 2A and 2B. In the later experiments, we also changed time presentation of visual display (3000 vs. 1300 ms, respectively). Results showed no differential effects of memory load in Experiments 1 and 2A, but they showed up in Experiment 2B: RTs were longer in the attentional task for trials under high memory load conditions. Although our hypothesis of the attentional set is supported by the results, other theoretical implications are also worth discussing in order to better understand how memory load may modulate attentional processes in VS.     

Imagery,concreteness, goodness,and familiarity ratings for 500 proverbs sampled from theOxford Dictionary of English Proverbs

Partly in order to facilitate research on the relation between some standard psychological variables, we gathered normative data on 500 proverbs sampled from theOxford Dictionary of English Proverbs (Wilson, 1970). The scales for which we gathered data are imagery, concreteness, goodness , and familiarity. These norms may be of value to researchers who wish to sample linguistic units larger than the word from a set that contains an extensive number of unfamiliar and familiar items. To illustrate the possible uses to which these data may be put, we presented a causal model of the relation between the four variables mentioned above.     

A mapping theory of agrammatic comprehension deficits

This paper offers evidence for the Isomorphic Mapping Hypothesis, which holds that individuals with agrammatic aphasia tend to have difficulty comprehending sentences in which the order of NPs is not aligned with the structure of the corresponding event. We begin by identifying a set of constructions in English and Korean for which the IMH makes predictions distinct from those of canonical order and trace-based theories of agrammatic comprehension. Then, drawing on data involving the interpretation of those patterns by English-speaking and Korean-speaking agrammatics, we argue for the conceptual and empirical superiority of the isomorphic mapping account.     

Serial reconstruction of order and serial recall in verbal short-term memory

We carried out a series of experiments on verbal short-term memory for lists of words. In the first experiment, participants were tested via immediate serial recall, and word frequency and list set size were manipulated. With closed lists, the same set of items was repeatedly sampled, and with open lists, no item was presented more than once. In serial recall, effects of word frequency and set size were found. When a serial reconstruction-of-order task was used, in a second experiment, robust effects of word frequency emerged, but set size failed to show an effect. The effects of word frequency in order reconstruction were further examined in two final experiments. The data from these experiments revealed that the effects of word frequency are robust and apparently are not exclusively indicative of output processes. In light of these findings, we propose a multiple-mechanisms account in which word frequency can influence both retrieval and preretrieval processes.     

Mapping the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical scales onto normal personality traits: evidence of construct validity

The MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC; Tellegen et al., 2003) scales were developed to remove common factor variance that saturates the clinical scales and create a more distinct set of measures, yielding a new set of scales with improved convergent and discriminant validity. In this study, we examined the relation between RC scale scores and scores on the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; Tellegen, in press), a measure of normal personality, using a sample of 811 college students. The results indicate strong convergence between the RC scales and expected MPQ higher order factors and primary scales. The RC scales also demonstrated expected improved convergent and discriminant validity over the clinical scales.     

When Hyperpropositions Meet ...

With each proposition P we associate a set of proposition (a hyperproposition) which determines the order in which one may retreat from accepting P, if one cannot fully hold on to P. We first describe the structure of hyperpropositions. Then we describe two operations on propositions, subtraction and merge, which can be modelled in terms of hyperpropositions. Subtraction is an operation that takes away part of the content of a proposition. Merge is an operation that determines the maximal consistent content of two propositions considered jointly. The merge operation gives rise to an inference relation which is, in a certain sense, optimally paraconsistent.     

Checklist procedures and the cost of automaticity

Automaticity is usually discussed in terms of its benefits. Automaticity has, however, a cost that manifests itself in procedures that are highly routinized but require close attention, such as verbal checklist procedures. In such procedures, errors occur because the routine leads to automaticity. In three paper-and-pen experiments, we tested this manifestation and investigated ways to decrease automaticity in verbal checklist procedures. In the experiments, subjects proofread sets of multiplication problems to detect erroneous operations, simulating the checklist procedure. In Experiments 1 and 2, two conditions were compared: a fixed-order condition (in which each set contained operations in the same order) and a varied-order condition (in which the operations were in a different order in each set). In Experiment 1, proofreading times were measured to establish the role of fixed sequential order as a consistent environment promoting the emergence of automaticity. In Experiment 2, we introduced errors into the material, and in Experiment 3 we introduced “alerting” conditions to interfere with the development of automaticity. The results indicated that the subjects in the varied-order and alert conditions detected significantly more errors than did those in the fixed-order condition. The implications of the findings for current theories of automaticity are discussed as well as those for the design of checklist procedures.     

Short-Term Forgetting of Order Under Conditions of Reduced Interference

Three experiments examined the short-term retention of order in a modified Brown-Peterson task. Our intent was to examine the loss of order memory, unconfounded by item memory, under conditions in which interference from prior trials is kept low. In previous work on the short-term forgetting of order, experimenters have tended to repeat the same items across trials or to draw from a restricted set; in our experiments, we changed the to-be-recalled items from trial to trial and used reconstruction as the retention measure. In all three experiments, very little forgetting was obtained across retention intervals that have traditionally produced dramatic and systematic loss. Our results are reminiscent of those obtained in the BrownPeterson task when performance is assessed after only the first experimental trial.