Sex differences in self- and teachers' reports of self-esteem in preadolescents

The short form of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory was administered to 952 fourth- and fifth-grade children (482 males, 470 females) from 41 classes. The children's teachers completed Coopersmith's Behavior Rating Form, a measure of self-esteem-related behavior. In the self-ratings, girls were significantly lower than boys; in the teachers' ratings, girls were significantly higher. In 32 of the 41 classes, boys ranked higher in their self-ratings than in the teacher ratings; the reverse was true for girls — a highly significant difference. This pattern of findings did not occur in the 8 classes which had male teachers. Issues concerning the measurement and conceptualization of self-esteem are discussed.This research was supported by Lehigh University, using Institutional Grant funds from the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to express their appreciation to Patricia Horton for her assistance in the collection of the data.     

Effects of Assertiveness Training on the Self-Esteem of Black High School Students

Effects of assertiveness training on assertive behaviors and self-esteem were investigated among Black high school students. Results showed a significant difference between scores of males and females on the written assertiveness measure. Scores of the 9 females in the experimental group accounted for all of the change, whereas scores of the 18 males actually dropped somewhat. No significant differences appeared on assertiveness or self-esteem across conditions, however. Possible reasons for lack of effects of the training are discussed. Continued study is necessary to identify ways for Blacks to meet their needs by moving from passive or aggressive approaches to assertive ones.     

Narcissistic Illusions in Self-Evaluations of Intelligence and Attractiveness

In this study we compared the ability of narcissism and self-esteem to predict positive illusions in self-evaluations of intelligence and physical attractiveness in a sample of 146 college students. Narcissism predicted both types of illusion for males and females; self-esteem predicted intelligence self-illusion for males. Both males and females overestimated their own intelligence, with males, but not females, also overestimating their attractiveness. Positive illusions for intelligence and attractiveness were correlated. Males showed greater positive illusions than females, with this effect at least partly attributable to observed gender differences in narcissism.     

Gender,gender role,and body image

The relationship between gender role and body image was examined in this research. Females and males who differed in their gender roles (i.e., masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated) completed the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (B. A. Winstead & T. F. Cash, Reliability and Validity of the Body-Self Questionnaire: A New Measure of Body Image, paper presented at the meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1984) and a measure of self-esteem. Results indicated that feminine females evaluated their physical appearance less favorably than androgynous females, although physical appearance was equally important to both groups. The importance of the masculine component of gender role was reflected in the favorable body-image ratings of androgynous and masculine females in all domains (i.e., physical appearance, physical fitness, and physical health), and in the unfavorable ratings of feminine males in the physical fitness domain. Regression analyses to predict body-image ratings indicated that while self-esteem was an important predictor, it did not account for the relationships between gender, gender role, and body image. Implications of the findings for future research on the relationships between gender role, body image, and indices of mental health are discussed.The authors would like to thank the consulting editor for her invaluable comments on earlier drafts of this article.     

Where are the Males? Gender Differences in Undergraduates’ Interest in and Perceptions of the Genetic Counseling Profession

Genetic counseling is a female-dominated field, with women comprising about 95% of the profession (Smith et al. 2009). Greater patient choice and satisfaction may be achieved by increasing the number of male counselors, but empirical evidence about the reasons for this gender imbalance is limited. In this study 190 undergraduates (110 females, 79 males, 1 unknown) in upper division bioscience courses completed a survey assessing their knowledge and perceptions of and interest in genetic counseling as a career. There were only two significant gender differences. Females indicated significantly greater interest than males in pursuing a genetic counseling career, and they rated interpersonal skills as more integral to genetic counseling than males. Multiple regression analyses of knowledge and perceptions as possible predictors of male and female interest in pursuing a genetic counseling career yielded no significant predictors of male interest. For females, there were four significant predictors: estimated salary, career characteristics, perceptions of genetic counseling as interpersonally focused, and whether they had already chosen a career. Implications for recruiting males to the profession, and research recommendations are presented.     

Parent-adolescent intimacy: impact on adolescent functioning

This paper examines the influence of parent-adolescent intimacy on adolescent functioning. Intimacy for both adolescent males and females was assessed in relation to their mothers and fathers. Adolescent development was measured using two scales: self-esteem and problem behavior. No significant differences were found between males and females on the measures of self-esteem, problem behavior, and intimacy. However, mothers were found to share greater degrees of intimacy than did fathers for both male and female adolescents. A regression analysis revealed that father intimacy was a better predictor of positive adolescent functioning than was mother intimacy.     

Sex-role identification and self-esteem in college students: Do men and women differ?

To explore the relationship between sex-role identification, achievement motivation, and self-esteem, 312 male and female college students were given the Stereotype Questionnaire, a modified form of the Mehrabian Achievement Motivation Test, and the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Group self-esteem scores of males and females did not differ significantly. While achievement motivation was a significant correlate of self-esteem for both males and females, the relationship was significantly stronger for females than for males. Furthermore, a significant direct relationship was found for both males and females between a stereotypically more masculine orientation and self-esteem. A mutually reinforcing salutary circle of processes was proposed to explain the results.     

Sex differences in recipients' reactions to aid

The purpose of this study was to determine whether males and females differentially respond to the receipt of aid as a function of their similarity to the donor and their own chronic level of self-esteem. Female and male adults received either help from a fictitious partner or no aid. All subjects were given information that they had been paired with a partner who had an inferior, similar, or superior level of task-relevant experience. Females paired with a partner of equal experience reported greater decrements in situational self-esteem than did males. Furthermore, females who received help reported a higher level of satisfaction with the help, and in all but one of the similarity conditions, females expressed a greater need for help than did males. When self-esteem was considered, high self-esteem females paired with persons with similar experience exhibited greater decrements in mood than did other high self-esteem females; males did not differ across conditions. Implications of the obtained sex differences were discussed in relation to sex differences in help-seeking behavior and sex role stereotypes.The authors would like to express their gratitude to Rob Beller, Mary Greenspun, Cheryl Hepfel, and Andrea Nagel, who assisted in data collection, and to Sanford Braver, who assisted with analyses. Thanks are also extended to Paul Karoly, Clark Presson, and Manuel Barrera for their advice throughout the completion of this study. The study was completed as partial fulfillment for the requirements of a master's degree by the first author at Arizona State University.     

Body Image Concerns and Contingent Self-Esteem in Male and Female College Students

Body dissatisfaction in females, and to a lesser extent males, is associated with low self-esteem, depression, and eating disorders. This research examined gender as a moderator of the association between contingent self-esteem and body image concerns, including weight and muscularity. Participants included 359 (59.1% female) heavy drinking first-year U.S. undergraduate students who completed a survey assessing health-related risk behaviors. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to examine relations among gender, contingent self-esteem, and body image. Females reported higher levels of contingent self-esteem and greater concerns about their weight, although males reported a greater drive for muscularity. The relationship between contingent self-esteem and weight concerns was stronger among females, and for males, greater contingent self-esteem was associated with a greater drive for muscularity.     

General and specific self-esteem in late adolescent students: race x gender x SES effects

This study assessed the effects of gender, race, and social class on the general and area-specific self-esteem of high school students. One hundred and ninety-five high school students served as subjects in a 2 (gender: male, female) X 2 (race: black, white) X 3 (social class: low, middle and high) factorial design. The Rosenberg General Self-Esteem, the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept, and the Brookover Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement scales were the measures of either general or specific self-esteem. Females, whites, and lower social class adolescents were consistently lower in their self-esteem scores than were males, blacks, and upper social class teenagers, respectively. White females were found to be lower in general and happiness self-esteem than all other gender by race subgroups. High SES white students were lower on the happiness and behavior self-esteem measures than black students and white middle-class students. Black males and white females were less confident in their school ability than were black females and white males.     

Sex role orientation and dimensions of self-esteem among middle adolescents

A questionnaire study of 229 high-school students examined the relationship between sex role orientation and various dimensions of self-esteem. The results provide strong support for the masculinity model self-esteem, especially for females. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed the following: (a) females perceived themselves to be significantly more socially competent than males; (b) males perceived themselves to be more physically competent than females; (c) adolescents high on masculinity perceived themselves to be significantly more socially competent, physically competent, and to have higher general self-esteem than those low on masculinity; (d) males and females high on masculinity perceived themselves to be significantly more physically competent and to have higher general self-esteem than females low on masculinity, although males low on masculinity did not differ significantly from any of the other interaction groups. Regression analyses by gender revealed the following: (a) the contribution of masculinity to social competence was much greater for females than for males, (b) the contribution of masculinity to physical competence was much greater for females than for males, and (c) the contribution of masculinity to general self-esteem was much greater for females than for males. In summary, for males, gender may override the impact of sex role orientation, while among females the impact of sex role orientation may be accentuated.     

Coping attitudes, sources, and practices among Black and Latino college students

We investigated 130 Black and Latino college students regarding their concerns, attitudes toward professional counseling, sources of support, and coping activities. We found that the Black and Latino cultural emphasis on interdependence influenced attitudes toward using professional resources such as a counselor. We also found a significant two-way interaction between gender and race for attitudes toward professional counseling: Black males had less favorable attitudes in comparison to Black females, while Latino males had more favorable attitudes than did Latino females. Both Black and Latino college students had favorable attitudes toward informal support networks. Differences between Black and Latino college students were found for reported concerns and coping sources. Implications for counseling theory, practice, and research are discussed.     

Parental Identification and Educational Dissatisfaction in Troubled College Students

Summary

The hypothesis was tested that the greater development of career interests associated with a masculine-parent identification would contribute to the educational problems of the troubled liberal arts college student. This was ased upon the anticipated frustrative effects of low career relevance of liberal arts curricula upon students with clearer career interests. Eighty liberal arts students (45 males and 35 females), clients at a college counseling agency, were subdivided into groups based upon primary parental identification (father versus mother) and masculinity-femininity of the identification model. Masculine-identified males (but not females) more frequently demonstrated less satisfaction with their majors relative to their feminineidentified counterparts when subjective ratings of certainty, relevance, and general satisfaction were considered. A higher incidence of choice problems (no chosen major or one or more changes of major) was found for masculineparent identified Ss of both sexes.     

Accounting for sex differences in depression through female victimization: Childhood sexual abuse

Unipolar depression is nearly twice as prevalent is women as men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). Several theories attempting to account for this disparity have been proposed, but none has yet systematically considered women's victimization experiences as a possible significant contributor to their high risk for later depression. One type of victimization that is much more common in females than males is child sexual abuse. Recent research indicates that the long-term effects of child sexual abuse include anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. In this paper, we review research suggesting that child sexual abuse can account for a significant portion of the differences in the rates of depression between females and males.     

Working mothers,sex differences,and self-esteem in college students' self-descriptions

This study examined whether a relationship exists between maternal employment and self-esteem of offspring. A questionnaire incorporating the Adjective Generation Technique (AGT) was administered to undergraduate psychology students from intact two-parent families. Subjects were divided into four categories: males whose mothers worked during their childhood (n=33), males whose mothers remained home (n=49), females whose mothers worked (n=54), and females whose mothers remained home (n=49). Data were analyzed using a 2 × 2 analysis of variance. Results indicated no differences in self-esteem for subjects of either sex in conjunction with the employment of their mothers. Instead, the subject's sex was the critical component affecting self-esteem. Males reported themselves significantly more favorably than did females.     

Creative thought in Artists

One hundred and eleven subjects, 14 and 15 years of age, were administered the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and two questionnaires, modified from Bienvenu's Adolescent Communication Inventory, eliciting adolescents’ perceptions of their communication with both parents. The 10 males and 10 females with the highest self-esteem scores, and the 10 males and 10 females with the lowest scores were identified to form two groups: the High Self-Esteem Group and the Low Self-Esteem Group. Parents of these students completed questionnaires concerning parent-adolescent communication and marital communication and adjustment.

The five hypotheses tested were strongly supported. Adolescents with low self-esteem viewed communication with their parents as less facilitative than did adolescents with high self-esteem. Parents of adolescents with low self-esteem perceived their communication with their spouses as less facilitative, and rated their marriages as less satisfying, than did parents in the High Self-Esteem Group. There was lack of congruence between the perceptions of adolescents with low self-esteem and those of their parents; both mothers and fathers in the Low Self-Esteem Group viewed parent-adolescent communication as more facilitative than did the adolescents themselves.     

Competitiveness, Gender, and Adjustment Among Adolescents

This study explored whether trait competitiveness in late adolescence is more detrimental to females’ than males’ social and psychological adjustment. Two types of competitiveness were studied, competing to win (CW; to dominate others) and competing to excel (CE; to surpass personal goals). Questionnaire ratings (by self and others) of 110 (53 females, 57 males, Mage 17.9 years) predominantly Caucasian (88.9%) high school students in northern Texas, USA were gathered. Males were higher on CW than females, but there were no gender differences on CE. For females, CW was associated with greater depression and loneliness, and with fewer and less close friendships. CE was associated with higher self-esteem and less depression for both genders, but was largely unrelated to social adjustment.     

A longitudinal investigation of the mediating role of self-esteem and body importance in the relationship between stress and body dissatisfaction in adolescent females and males

Body dissatisfaction is particularly prevalent during adolescence and has recently been linked to stress in females and males. However, prospective studies are needed to better understand the relationship between stress and body dissatisfaction. The present study investigates the direction of this association and the mediating role of self-esteem and body image importance. A sample of 298 adolescent females and males in Grades 7 to 10 (ages 12 to 17 years) were surveyed at two time points over a one-year period. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that stress significantly predicted body dissatisfaction one year later. Furthermore, a multiple mediation analysis controlling for gender revealed a significant indirect effect in both cross-sectional and longitudinal models, indicating that stress predicts reductions in self-esteem and increases in body importance, which in turn predict body dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that stress, self-esteem, and body importance should be included in programmes aimed at improving body dissatisfaction.     

Body dissatisfaction and body comparison with media images in males and females

This study examined the role of media body comparison as a mediator of the relationships between psychological factors and sociocultural pressures to be thin and body dissatisfaction in both females and males. Participants were 1,386 females (mean age = 19.37 years) and 1,130 males (mean age = 19.46) from diverse backgrounds who completed a self-report questionnaire. Path analysis was used to test a cross-sectional model in which media body comparison mediated the impact of self-esteem, depressive mood, parent dieting environment, friend dieting, TV exposure, magazine message exposure, weight teasing and body mass index (BMI) on body dissatisfaction. In females, media body comparison partially or fully mediated relationships between self-esteem, depressive mood, friend dieting, magazine message exposure and BMI, and body dissatisfaction. In males, media body comparison was not a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction. This research particularly highlights the need to further examine processes that are involved in the development of body dissatisfaction in males.