An empirical examination of relative deprivation theory

Relative deprivation theory centers around the proposition that the negative affect associated with judgments of one's own status is not simply a function of one's objective status. Instead, resentment, anger, dissatisfaction and other deprivation-related emotions vary with the subjective assessment of one's status. In the present experiment, subjects read vignettes in which the hypothesized preconditions of felt deprivation were manipulated. They then indicated the degree of perceived resentment and related cognitive-emotional factors attributed to the story characters. Perceptions of deprivation become more prevalent when an individual who lacks a desired outcome (X) (a) compares with another who does possess X, (b) feels entitled to X, (c) feels it was once feasible to attain X, and (d) feels it is not feasible to attain X in the future. The results also suggest that certain preconditions, such as the presence of a comparison other and entitlement, act conjunctively in affecting judgments of felt deprivation. Finally, personal control over desired outcomes appears to be important for relative deprivation theory.     

Interviewers’ Moods and Evaluations of Job Applicants: The Role of Applicant Qualifications1

Participants were induced to experience positive affect, negative affect, or no shift in current affect. Then they conducted a simulated job interview with an applicant (actually an assistant) who appeared to be highly qualified, ambiguously qualified, or unqualified for the job in question. It was predicted that interviewers’ moods would exert the strongest influence on ratings of the applicant when this person's qualifications were ambiguous. Results offered partial support for this hypothesis. When the applicant's qualifications were ambiguous, participants induced to experience positive affect rated this person higher on several dimensions than participants induced to experience negative affect. When the applicant appeared to be highly qualified for the job, in contrast, interviewers’ moods had no significant effect on their ratings of this person. Contrary to expectations, however, interviewers’ moods significantly influenced ratings of the applicant when this person appeared to be unqualified for the job in question. In this condition, participants induced to experience positive affect actually rated the applicant lower than those induced to experience negative affect. Several mechanisms that may have contributed to these results (e. g., tendencies toward mood maintenance, adoption of a positive-test strategy) are examined. In addition, practical implications of these findings for conducting job interviews and for the use of various impression-management techniques by applicants are discussed.     

Social comparison processes in the experience of personal relative deprivation

Drawing on social comparison and equity theories, we investigated the role that perceived similarity of a comparison target plays in how resentful people feel about their relative financial status. In Study 1, participants tended to choose a comparison target who was better off, and they selected a target they perceived to be more similar than dissimilar along dimensions that surrounded their financial outcomes. In Study 1, perceived relative disadvantage was positively associated with resentment regardless of the perceived similarity of the comparison target. The results of Studies 2 to 5b clarified these findings by showing that being both similar and dissimilar to a target can cause resentment depending on the context. Using hypothetical and real social comparisons, we found that people are more dissatisfied with their financial outcomes when their comparative targets have the same background qualifications (i.e., are similar) but are financially better off (Studies 2, 3b, 4, and 5b). However, we also found that when the comparative financial contexts were similar (i.e., equal affluence), participants were more dissatisfied when their target for comparison had lower qualifications (i.e., was dissimilar; Studies 2, 3a, 4, and 5a). In all cases, perceptions of unfairness mediated the effects of social comparison on financial dissatisfaction. Taken together, these studies address some of the ambiguities around what it means to be similar to a target in the context of social comparisons of affluence, and they underscore the importance of perceived unfairness in the link between social comparison and resentment with one's financial status.     

Beliefs in a Just World and Reactions to Personal Deprivation

ABSTRACT We hypothesized that strong believers in a just world would be motivated to perceive personal deprivation as fair and to report little resentment, compared to weak believers in a just world In two experiments, subjects performed a computer task to earn points toward a goal that had desirable consequences In the first study, some subjects chose their computer task, whereas other subjects were randomly assigned to a task In the second study, some subjects decided not to practice the task before the test trial, whereas other subjects learned after the test trial that the experimenter had forgotten to give them the opportunity to practice All subjects received bogus feedback indicating that they did not earn any points The predicted relation between beliefs in a just world and perceived fairness was obtained in both experiments, especially within the choice condition of Experiments and the experimenter error condition of Experiments The results show that beliefs in a just world have implications not only for perceptions of others, but also for self-perception     

Promotion Decisions in an Affirmative Action Environment: Can Social Accounts Change Fairness Perceptions?

An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of observer gender, applicants' qualifications, and managerial accounts on justice perceptions in an affirmative action environment. As expected, MANOVA results indicated that, prior to providing an account, the promotion of a female yielded the highest fairness ratings when the female was more qualified than the male applicant and when the observer was female. In a second wave of data, MANCOVA results indicated that an ideological-gender explanation resulted in the lowest subsequent fairness ratings. Additionally, accounts interacted with applicants' qualifications. When the promoted female was the most qualified candidate, the ideological-gender account resulted in the lowest fairness ratings.     

The Role of Psychological Stigmatization in Unemployment Discrimination

Abstract

Discrimination against the unemployed operates through attributions, is unjustifiable, and is nearly instantaneous. Experimental Studies 1 and 2 find that unemployment discrimination operates through attributions, as emphasizing an uncontrollable and external cause for unemployment onset alleviates discrimination. Experimental Studies 3 and 4 find that unemployment stigma is unjustifiable on productivity grounds, as formerly unemployed workers are judged negatively once on the job, even when we control for on-the-job performance. Across the studies, unemployed workers are perceived not only as less competent but also as less warm. Study 5 is a field study in which fictionalized resumes are sent to real employers. Controlling for qualifications, it finds that discrimination against the unemployed occurs nearly instantaneously to becoming unemployed.     

Judging deservingness and affect in relation to another's employment or unemployment: a test of a justice model

In a study that was based on a structural model of deservingness, 24 male and 80 female undergraduate students responded to scenarios in which either a liked or disliked unemployed stimulus person expended either high or low effort and then either obtained employment or remained unemployed. Results showed that, when the outcome was employment, judgements of responsibility, deservingness, and pleasure about the successful outcome were higher when the stimulus person expended high effort rather than low effort. When the outcome was unemployment, judgements of responsibility, deservingness, and reported pleasure about the unsuccessful outcome were higher when the stimulus person displayed low effort rather than high effort in seeking a job and participants reported feeling less sympathetic and more annoyed with the stimulus person and less inclined to provide financial assistance. Liking relations had most effects in the employed condition. The employed outcome elicited more reported pleasure and less resentment for the liked stimulus person and he or she was judged to be more responsible for and more deserving of employment than the disliked stimulus person. The results were discussed in relation to component balanced and unbalanced structures within the structural model and they also suggested some elaboration of the responsibility variable. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sex differences in perceptions of interpersonal work style,career emphasis,supervisory mentoring behavior,and job satisfaction

This study examined the perceptions of career-oriented men and women with respect to their interpersonal work style, career emphasis, supervisory behavior, and job satisfaction based on their current or most recent work experience. The results show that women subjects in this study perceived themselves to be less assertive in work situations and also continued to emphasize home life over their career success and advancement when compared to men. In the context of supervisory behavior, women subjects perceived male supervisors as exhibiting less mentioning behavior towards them and had lower job satisfaction when compared to male subjects under male supervisors in the study. Some implications of these results with respect to training and career management were also discussed.     

失业人员求职行为的影响因素及作用机制 ——基于沈阳市的一项研究

对失业人员求职行为影响因素的研究是开展失业人员求职培训的重要依据。本研究对272名失业人员的求职行为的影响因素及作用机制进行了研究。多元回归分析的结果表明,（1）环境变量对求职行为没有显著的预测作用,而经济压力和知觉到的就业机会对求职意向有显著的预测作用。（2）求职自我效能感和就业承诺对求职行为起到了显著的预测作用。求职自我效能感和就业承诺越高,求职行为的频率越高。（3）求职意向对求职行为有显著的正向预测作用。（4）求职意向在求职自我效能感、就业承诺对求职行为的作用过程中中介作用显著;在知觉到的就业机会、经济压力和社会支持对求职行为的作用过程中中介作用不显著     

Predicting self‐esteem during unemployment: The effect of gender,financial deprivation,alternate roles,and social support

Two hundred and one unemployed men and women participated in a cross‐sectional study that assessed self‐esteem, financial deprivation, number of alternate roles, and use of social support. Financial deprivation, alternate roles, and social support each had a main effect on self‐esteem. In addition, these variables interacted with gender to affect self‐esteem. Specifically, financial deprivation had a greater negative association with self‐esteem in men as compared with women. In contrast, alternate roles and social support had a stronger positive relationship to self‐esteem in women than in men. The incorporation of these findings into intervention programs for unemployed persons is discussed.     

unemployment,social support,individual resources,and job search behavior

The authors investigated the relation between the social support received by unemployed individuals (N = 104) and their job search behavior. A moderated mediation model demonstrated that the effect of social support on job search behaviors was mediated by self‐esteem but only if adequacy of social support was perceived as low. In addition, the effect of social support on job search behavior was partially mediated by optimistic expectations and resilience. In sum, social support seems to be a resource with complex and partially surprising effects on job search behavior.     

The effects of expected future interaction and prior group support on the conformity process

Previous results indicate that people conform more to group judgments when they have received unanimous group support for their opinions than when they have received no support. The present study tested the hypothesis that these differences would be attenuated when future interaction with the group members was anticipated. The 70 male subjects were tested in a Crutchfield-type conformity situation, where prior group support (100 vs 0%) and anticipation of future interaction (alone vs group) were manipulated. Predictions were based on an examination of conformity incentives that considered normative and informational sources of social influence, as well as Hollander's model of idiosyncracy credit. Consistent with predictions, conformity in the 0% prior support condition was greater when subjects anticipated future group interaction than when they did not, whereas the reverse was true in the 100% prior support condition. In addition, conformity was correlated negatively with both confidence in task ability and feelings of group acceptance when future interaction with the group was anticipated. These data suggest that when future group activity is expected, the tendency to reciprocate past treatment from the group is reduced.     

Professional commitment: Does it buffer or intensify job demands?

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether professional commitment can be seen as a moderator in the relationship between job demands and emotional exhaustion among Norwegian nurses. Inspired by the job demands‐resources model, this study explores whether having a strong commitment to the nursing profession can be seen as a resource that buffers the effect of job demands on emotional exhaustion or, conversely, intensifies the impact of job demands. A survey that comprised Norwegian nurses who had graduated three years previously (N = 388) was conducted. Multiple regression was performed to test the hypothesis. The results provide support to a buffering effect; thus, individuals with a higher degree of professional commitment conveyed a weaker association between job demands and emotional exhaustion compared with nurses with a lower degree of commitment. Developing a better understanding of the potential buffering effect of professional commitment is of great interest. The present study is the first to utilize professional commitment as a resource within the job demands‐resources framework.     

Applicant Attraction: The role of recruiter function,work–life balance policies and career salience

This study examined the impact of salient identity, career path and recruiter functional area [internal human resource (HR) personnel vs external recruitment company] on perceptions of organizational attraction with a sample of young, inexperienced job seekers. Two hundred and one participants responded to a questionnaire and rated their attraction to two different job advertisements. The results partially supported the first hypothesis; applicants perceived a job opportunity in an organization that offered either a flexible career path or a dual career path as significantly more attractive than a position in an organization that offered a traditional career path. There was no support for the second hypothesis that identity salience would interact with career path. The results showed that recruiter functional area had no impact on attraction to the organization. It was concluded that flexible HR policies increase applicants' perceptions of organizational attraction during the initial stages of the recruitment process. Practical and research applications are discussed.     

The Effects of Social Support on Self‐Esteem,Self‐Efficacy,and Job Search Efficacy in the Unemployed

This study attempted to determine the effects of family and social support on the self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy of the unemployed. A total of 117 surveys were collected in Nevada, Idaho, and Oregon measuring self‐esteem, general self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy and social support. Pearson correlation coefficients demonstrated moderately strong positive relationships between social support and self‐esteem, general self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy. Social and family support had a stronger influence on the self‐perceptions of men than women.     

Get' em While They Last! Effects of Scarcity Information in Job Advertisements

Participants in Study 1 ( N = 172) were presented with a restaurant server advertisement differing by vacancy availability (scarce vs. plentiful) and scarcity type (number of vacancies vs. time to apply). Companies advertising only a few vacancies available were perceived as paying a significantly higher hourly wage than companies advertising many vacancies available. Also, both vacancy scarcity and time scarcity had positive effects on various company-image perceptions. Study 2 ( N = 181) replicated most of the findings in Study 1 using a different entry-level job advertisement. However, although presentation mode (i.e., advertisement vs. factual) had a main effect on intention to apply, it did not interact with vacancy scarcity.     

Psychological Dimensions of Unemployment: A Gender Comparison Between Belgian and South African Unemployed

This study sought to compare South African and Belgian unemployed in their subjective experience of unemployment, committed towards employment and job search behaviour. We also considered gender differences regarding the psychological dimensions of unemployment between Belgium and South Africa. A cross-sectional survey design was used. Unemployed people were sampled from the Potchefstroom area in South Africa (N = 381) and the Brussels area in Belgium (N = 305). The Experiences of Unemployment Questionnaire was administered. While no significant gender differences were found in South Africa, significant differences were found for all three psychological dimensions of unemployment in the Belgian sample. South African intervention programmes should be developed in order to cope with long-lasting unemployment, social isolation and further financial deprivation.     

A closer look at decisions to quit

Aspects of March and Simon’s (1958) subjective expected utility model and a prediction of Lee and Mitchell’s (1994) unfolding model of voluntary employee turnover were tested. A policy capturing simulation that varied high, moderate, and low levels of five job characteristics was used to model voluntary turnover decision processes for 532 nurses. Survey measures of these job characteristics obtained over the next 2 years were multiplied by weights derived from nurse simulations to yield turnover likelihood estimates. These estimates exhibited 80%, 127%, and 190% more predictive power (depending on turnover operationalization) than post-employment survey estimates of turnover intention, job satisfaction, and job availability. Groups of nurses with homogeneous voluntary turnover decision models were also identified, though no groups with homogeneous job perceptions were observed. Evidence suggested nurses responded to “shocks” as predicted. March and Simon’s model of voluntary turnover was supported and implications drawn for managing voluntary nursing turnover.