A 3-Year follow-up of aggressive and withdrawn behavior in childhood: Preliminary findings

The school placement of 122 aggressive, 150 withdrawn, 182 aggressive-withdrawn, and 299 control children was determined 3 years following their original selection. Children identified by peers as aggressive-withdrawn or aggressive were more likely to have failed a grade or to be in a special class than were withdrawn children or controls. Older aggressive-withdrawn subjects and controls, but not aggressive subjects or withdrawn subjects, had higher rates of school failure and special class placement. Fewer boys than girls were in a regular class at the expected grade level. The results underline the importance of childhood aggression as a predictor of later academic adjustment. Implications of these findings for the interpretation of measures of behavioral stability are discussed.The research reported here was supported by Quebec Ministry of Social Affairs Grant RS 281 to Jane Ledingham and Alex Schwartzman. The authors would like to thank the Commission des Ecoles Catholiques de Montréal for their continuing cooperation in this project, and Debbie Moskowitz and Alastair Younger for their constructive comments on an earlier draft.     

Stages in the development of aggressive behavior in early childhood

Primary manifestations of aggression appear in the behavior of children in the second half of the first year of life. The frequency of Occurrence of interpeer aggression increases with age, and reaches its maximum in the third year. The frequency of aggression may later decrease, but there are considerable individual differences. Changes a h Occur in the form in which aggression is manifested; its motivational background and associated elicitors; its direction, duration, timing, and other operational characteristics, and in the modes of its acquisition. A certain continuity may be traced, however, in any of these features and the development of aggression may be perhaps more adequately represented by the following sequence of developmental stage:

• 1 Stage of preaggressive behavior;
• 2 Stage of primary differentiation;
• 3 Stage of the appearance of the individual pattern of aggressive behavior;
• 4 Stage of secondary differentiation of aggression;
• 5 Stage of the beginning of the transition into covert behavior—internalization of aggression

These stages represent certain facets of the interaction between the changing behavioral performance of the child and herlhis social environment, and may be used for evaluating aggressive behavior in young children.     

Androgens and aggressive behavior in primates: A review

This review deals with possible central and peripheral effects of androgens upon primate aggressive behavior. One problem that clouds interpretation of experimental work is that measurements of dominance have often been employed, such as competition tests for food and water. Such measures often do not correlate with those obtained by quantifying aggressive interactions. It should be remembered that very few of the 188 primate species have been studied experimentally and that great behavioral and physiological diversity occurs within the order. Therefore, generalizations about the effects of androgens upon aggressive behavior in primates (including man) should be made with caution. Testosterone has an organizing influence upon the foetal brain of rhesus monkeys and may affect the development of neural mechanisms which govern aggression in males. More data are required on primates, however, since rhesus monkeys show some important differences from rodents as regards the effects of androgen upon sexual differentiation of the hypothalamus. In future, marmosets may provide a suitable model for such studies, because there is evidence that sexual differentiation of brain by androgen occurs postnatally in these monkeys. At puberty, male primates show a variety of behavioral changes and, during adulthood, males of seasonally breeding species may be more aggressive during the mating season, when testosterone levels are maximal. This does not indicate a causative relationship between testosterone and aggressive responses, because castration and androgen treatments have little effect upon aggression in prepubertal or adult males of several primate species. Androgens have pronounced effects on sexual responses in adult male monkeys, but their central effects upon aggression are much less important than among rodents. Elec trical stimulation of hypothalamic pathways has been employed to evoke aggressive behavior in marmosets and rhesus monkeys. In the rhesus, preliminary evidence indicates that such pathways show some sensitivity to androgens. In rodents it is known that these areas are richly supplied with monoaminergic neurons, which play an important role in aggressive behavior. There is little evidence on primates, however, and this remains a crucial topic for future research. Peripheral effects of androgens should also be considered. Many prosimians and New World monkeys use scent-marking behaviors and, in males, androgen-dependent chemical cues may be involved in sexual recognition and territorial behavior. This possibility awaits investigation. Finally, plasma testosterone levels may alter as a function of aggression itself; thus levels decrease if male rhesus monkeys are defeated by conspecifics. This might occur because neural events associated with giving (or receiving) aggression also influence pituitary function and hence alter gonadal testosterone secretion. Theoretically, it is possible that such changes in circulating testosterone might affect aggressive behavior via a feedback action on the brain, but the experimental evidence does not support such a view.     

Developmental patterns in body esteem from late childhood to young adulthood: A growth curve analysis

This study examines the long-term development of different domains of body esteem (BE), the most salient domain of adolescents' global self-esteem. The 11-year longitudinal study of Swedish youths, covering ages 10–21, showed that BE undergoes significant change from late childhood to young adulthood, with growth curve models revealing different developmental paths between domains and across gender. For girls, general appearance esteem and weight esteem decreased in the early adolescent phase and then stabilized. For boys, similar patterns were evident, but weight esteem was subject to change also in late adolescence. The third BE domain, appearance-evaluations ascribed to others, displayed a distinct developmental trajectory. This was the only domain where no gender differences were noted in terms of mean levels. It was also the only domain that demonstrated positive increases over time. Findings from the present long-term study contribute to a more coherent picture of the development of BE from late childhood and into young adulthood.     

Dialectical behavior therapy for the treatment of anger and aggressive behavior: A review

ObjectiveThe management of anger and aggression is a public safety issue. Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is a promising treatment for reducing anger and violent behavior. This mode of therapy addresses maladaptive behavior by teaching emotion regulation, distress tolerance, interpersonal effectiveness, core mindfulness, and self-management skills.MethodsThis paper reviewed DBT treatment for anger and aggressive or violent behavior. The literature search included articles from 1998 to September 2013. A total of 21 peer-reviewed articles studying the effects of DBT on anger and aggressive behavior were reviewed.ResultsAdaptations or modifications were made to standard DBT to accommodate the specific needs of the variety of populations across studies. Nine studies attempted to understand the efficacy of DBT for anger and aggressive behavior while twelve studies measured the efficacy of DBT within the context of a BPD diagnosis. There are nine randomized controlled trials (RCT) assessing DBT to reduce anger and aggressive behavior.ConclusionResearch has shown that there are potentially clinically significant results when using DBT to treat anger and aggression in various samples. Findings from this review suggest that treatments, even when modified show a positive impact on the reduction of anger and aggressive behaviors.     

Recall of aggressive and withdrawn statements among young children: Social schema or meaningfulness

Two studies assessed the effects of type of sentence (aggressive vs. withdrawn) and meaningfulness level on the sentence recall of young children. In Study 1, normative data showed that the meaningfulness value of aggressive sentences was greater than that of withdrawn sentences and that meaningfulness and recall were positively related. In Study 2, subjects were tested for sentence recall in a 2 (aggressive vs. withdrawn sentences) x 2 (high vs. low meaningfulness)within subjects design. The sole significant effect was meaningfulness, with the superior recall of high relative to low meaningful sentences. Results are interpreted through a knowledge base model. This research was supported by the Wake Forest University Research and Publication Fund. Experiment 1 was presented at the 1988 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Atlanta, GA, and Experiment 2 was presented at the 1991 annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC.     

Recall of aggressive and withdrawn statements among young children: Social schema or meaningfulness

Two studies assessed the effects of type of sentence (aggressive vs. withdrawn) and meaningfulness level on the sentence recall of young children. In Study 1, normative data showed that the meaningfulness value of aggressive sentences was greater than that of withdrawn sentences and that meaningfulness and recall were positively related. In Study 2, subjects were tested for sentence recall in a 2 (aggressive vs. withdrawn sentences) x 2 (high vs. low meaningfulness)within subjects design. The sole significant effect was meaningfulness, with the superior recall of high relative to low meaningful sentences. Results are interpreted through a knowledge base model. This research was supported by the Wake Forest University Research and Publication Fund. Experiment 1 was presented at the 1988 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Atlanta, GA, and Experiment 2 was presented at the 1991 annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC.     

Taxonomies of aggressive behavior: A preliminary report

It has been widely and regularly suggested that aggression is not a unitary concept but rather an omnibus term concealing important and distinct subclasses of behavior. Psychologists have offered various categorical schemes highlighting motivation and form as distinguishing criteria. Many writers have also noted the social relativity of dermitions of classes of aggression and called for a consideration of lay conceptions of aggressive behavior. The present paper explores the correspondence between psychologists' and laypersons' categorizations of aggressive acts. Ten short scenarios of aggression were generated to embody systematic permutations of form and motive as suggested by the published work of social psychologists. Subjects rated every pairwise combination in terms of perceived similarity. The data were subjected to three-factor, multidimensional scaling. The resulting structure indicated that subjects' ratings were not random and reflected consideration of motive (hostile, normative, instrumental, status) and of direct versus indirect form. The data were thus in close correspondence with the classifications generated by psychologists. The desirability of refining this technique and extending it to other cultural and subcultural groups is discussed.     

Predicting aggressive patterns in girls and boys: A developmental study

The aim of this multimethod, longitudinal study was to examine similarities and differences in aggressive expression and prediction among school-aged boys and girls. The primary research sample involved 174 children (93 females, 81 males). They were in the fourth grade at the beginning of the study, and the fifth grade at its conclusion. Embedded in the primary sample was a subgroup of 20 children identified as being highly aggressive (ten males, ten females), and a subgroup of 20 matched control children. The research measures included teachers' ratings of aggressive behavior, peer-nominations/reports of prior conflicts, individual interviews/self-ratings, and extensive behavioral observations. Analyses of the concurrent relations among measures pointed to a “public” cluster of measures (including peer-nominations, behaviors, and teacher ratings) and relatively “private” measures (ie, subjects' self-evaluations). In the primary sample, significant developmental trends were detected in the teacher ratings with increasing gender differentiation as children grew older. Few gender differences were observed in the high-aggressive subgroup, but the aggressive and the matched control groups differed on virtually all comparisons. Gender differences in predictability were a function of risk status, with high-aggressive girls showing as much stability as high-aggressive boys.     

Cognitive competencies and aggressive behavior: A developmental study

A number of studies have demonstrated that increased socially related cognitive skills are associated with decreases in aggressive behavior. However, the link between aggression and intelligence or academic skills is less evident. While some research indicates that poor academic performance is related to aggression, it is unclear which components of intellectual ability and performance are critical to the management of aggressive behaviors. In two independent longitudinal studies of elementary school-age children, the relationship among several aspects of cognitive competence and several aspects of aggressive behavior were examined. The results of the first study showed that aggressive behavior observed in kindergarten children was more closely related to academic performance in the first and second grades than to general cognitive ability (IQ). The results of the second study, a comprehensive three-year investigation of upper elementary school-age children, indicated that teachers' assessments of aggression and parents' ratings of cruelty were consistent over time for boys, but not for girls. The intercorrelations among aggression measures within each of the three years also revealed stable sex differences. Boys identified as aggressive in the classroom were more likely to be perceived as aggressive, cruel, and/or delinquent at home, but for girls, there was little correlation between aggression at school and in the home. The analyses relating measures of cognitive functioning to indices of aggressive behavior made clear the importance of discriminating among various facets of these psychological constructs. IQ had a negligible relationship with aggression and a weak inverse relationship to delinquency. An overall index of cognitive functioning was a somewhat more consistent negative correlate of aggression, cruelty, and delinquency, especially for boys. A similar pattern was found for the correlates of academic performance. Academic disability was strongly related to delinquency in boys, and to a lesser degree to aggression in boys. Of the several cognitively related factors that were explored, Low Need Achievement manifested the strongest and most consistent relationships with the different facets of aggression and antisocial behavior, especially in boys. The implications of these results for psychological interventions in the school are discussed.     

A neurophysiologic model for aggressive behavior in the cat

A neurophysiologic model for aggessive behavior in the cat is proposed. Stimulus-bound and seizure-bound aggression was evaluated in relation to limbic and basal ganglia induced seizures (after-discharges). Electrically induced limbic and basal ganglia afterdischarges were used because they are known to implicate septohypothalamic sites from which aggression can be elicited by direct stimulation. The occurrence of behavioral aggression is correlated with the discharge characteristics of a single discharging system and with two interacting discharging systems. Aggression is composed of autonomic and somato-motor components which poses relatively low and high thresholds, respectively, for their activation. Aggression occurring during a combined septum and amygdala discharge was more intense and prolonged than with a septum discharge alone. Participation of a slow frequency discharging basal ganglia system activated seizurebound aggression in an otherwise nonaggressive limbic seizure. The limbic and basal ganglia stimulations and after-discharges lowered the excitability threshold of the aggression system and made it more vulnerable to being activated by external stimuli, such as visual and auditory stimuli. These observations are reminiscent of patients with aggressive behavior associated with psychomotor seizures.     

Habituation of aggressive behavior in mice: A parametric study

The decline of aggression as a result of repeated episodes of fighting may represent a habituation phenomenon. The frequency of biting and sideways threat by male mice toward conspecific intruders declined over ten 5-min confrontations. Aggression returned to about 50% of original levels when a new intruder was introduced. Variations in length or frequency of confrontation indicated that the rate of decline of attack bites and sideways threats depended on these confrontation parameters. The condition that provided the fewest opportunities to fight provided the least decline in the frequency of attack and threat. The frequency of attack bites and sideways threats elicited by the presentation of a new intruder after repeated confrontations was greater than the frequency of attack bite and sideways threat in the last confrontation with the original intruder, when the resident and intruder were relatively inexperienced. Spontaneous recovery of attack and threat occurred but rate of recovery did not depend on confrontation parameters. The results indicate that the decrement of aggression in mice in repeated confrontations may be the result of habituation but fatigue is an important cofactor.     

A technique for the measurement of aggressive behavior in mice

This paper describes an apparatus permitting the study of aggressive behavior in mice. Aggressive behavior may be spontaneous or induced by means of an electric shock delivered through the tail.     

Hyperactive and aggressive behaviors in childhood: Intertwined dimensions

The relationship between aggression and hyperactivity is unclear in childhood hyperkinesis. To examine the relationship between the two dimensions, a sample of 109 first-, second-, and third grade children who were rated as hyperactive were evaluated daily by their teachers for 12 consecutive school days on the Daily Behavior Checklist. Daily recordings were made on a total of 22 specific behaviors, 11 physically or verbally aggressive acts, and 11 acts of a restless or hyperactive nature. The Conners hyperactivity score correlated. 47 with daily aggression and .49 with daily hyperactivity. A subgroup of hyperactive children who exhibited both hyperactive and aggressive behaviors at rates greater than 98% of their classmates was selected. These children were rated significantly higher on the Conners scale than an alternate subgroup of hyperactive children who showed high rates of hyperactive but not aggressive behaviors. In view of heavy reliance on teacher ratings with the Conners scale in studies of hyperactivity, careful consideration of the potential confounding of hyperactivity and aggression is recommended. Implications for classification, longitudinal investigation, and evaluation of treatment of hyperactive children were discussed.     

A comparison of aggressive and withdrawn children's self-esteem,optimism and pessimism,and causal attributions for success and failure

Aggressive children, withdrawn children, combined aggressive and withdrawn children, and children displaying neither aggressive nor withdrawn behavior were compared on three self-appraisal measures: (a) self-esteem, (b) attributions to ability and lack of ability following success and failure, and (c) optimism and pessimism about one's long-term personal future. From an initial sample of 583 elementary school children, independent and extreme groups were identified by combined ratings of teachers and classmates. Solely aggressive children had higher self-esteem than either solely withdrawn children or children who were both aggressive and withdrawn. The control group of children who were neither aggressive nor withdrawn had the highest self-esteem of all. The control group also attributed success to ability more than the two groups of children with high withdrawal scores but did not differ from the solely aggressive children. There were no significant differences among the groups in attributions to lack of ability following failure or in optimism or pessimism.We wish to thank Elliot Fielstein, Mariellen Fischer, Michael Klein, and Penelope Koburger for their assistance with data collection, and Elliot Fielstein and Matthew Tarran for their assistance with data analysis. We are also indebted to Bruce Compas for his helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

A narratological methodology for identifying archetypal story patterns in autobiographical narratives

Based on Jung's definition of archetype the concept 'archetypal story pattern' is developed as well as a research method drawing on narrative analysis and biographical research to identify these archetypal story patterns in life stories. Jung pointed out that personal myths, archetypal patterns found, e.g., in mythology, can govern the life course of individuals unconsciously. In the Theory of Narrative Identity comparable concepts have been mentioned but were never fully developed. In my research I try to combine Jung's concept of the archetype with the elaborated methodology of narrative analysis. Archetypes can manifest as narratives and the identity construction of a person via narrating the life story can be influenced or even totally structured by archetypal stories which give a specific form as well as a specific meaning to the person's identity. The method of extracting an underlying archetypal pattern from an autobiographical narrative is demonstrated. The results of the research on 20 autobiographical interviews and the inherent archetypal patterns are summarized. The major aim of this paper is to describe in detail the application of a well established method of the social sciences on a key concept of Jungian psychology to show that these concepts can be integrated into recent research frameworks of academic sciences. On the other hand it shows that Jungian concepts can be investigated through established and well defined research methods in empirical research settings.