Concurrent validity of the differential ability scales,second edition with the Mullen Scales of Early Learning in young children with and without neurodevelopmental disorders

Estimates of intelligence in young children with neurodevelopmental disorders are critical for making diagnoses, in characterizing symptoms of disorders, and in predicting future outcomes. The limitations of standardized testing for children with developmental delay or cognitive impairment are well known: Tests do not exist that provide developmentally appropriate material along with norms that extend to the lower reaches of ability. Two commonly used and interchanged instruments are the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL), a test of developmental level, and the Differential Ability Scales, second edition (DAS-II), a more traditional cognitive test. We evaluated the correspondence of contemporaneous MSEL and the DAS-II scores in a mixed sample of children aged 2–10 years with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), non-ASD developmental delays, and typically developing children across the full spectrum of cognitive ability. Consistent with published data on the original DAS and the MSEL, scores on the DAS-II and MSEL were highly correlated. However, curve estimation revealed large mean differences that varied as a function of the child’s cognitive ability level. We conclude that interchanging MSEL and DAS-II scores without regard to the discrepancy in scores may produce misleading results in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of children with and without ASD, and, thus, this practice should be implemented with caution.     

Learning Related and Interpersonal Social Skills Constructs in Two Existing Social Skills Assessments

In the social skills literature it has been identified that both learning related social skills and interpersonal social skills may exist. This study ascertained the views of 16 experts regarding the existence of the two proposed constructs, learning related social skills and interpersonal social skills, within two pre-existing assessments: Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales–2nd edition and Child Behavior Rating Scale. Sixteen experts from Australia (n = 11) and Singapore (n = 5) with pediatric backgrounds in occupational therapy, speech pathology, psychology and early childhood education took part in the study. Experts were asked to sort cards with each of the items from the Child Behavior Rating Scale and Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales–2nd edition (66 items in total) into one of two piles (one for learning related social skills and one for interpersonal social skills) and then answered several open ended questions about the clinical utility of these constructs. Preliminary evidence demonstrated the existence of the learning related social skills and interpersonal social skills constructs within the items of the two assessments (Child Behavior Rating Scale and Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales–2nd edition). The experts' opinion also suggested the potential clinical benefits of assessing both learning related social skills and interpersonal social skills in preschool-age children. The study results and implications for further research and clinical practice are discussed.     

Individual differences in false memory from misinformation: Cognitive factors

This research investigated the cognitive correlates of false memories that are induced by the misinformation paradigm. A large sample of Chinese college students (N=436) participated in a misinformation procedure and also took a battery of cognitive tests. Results revealed sizable and systematic individual differences in false memory arising from exposure to misinformation. False memories were significantly and negatively correlated with measures of intelligence (measured with Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), perception (Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, Change Blindness, and Tone Discrimination), memory (Wechsler Memory Scales and 2-back Working Memory tasks), and face judgement (Face Recognition and Facial Expression Recognition). These findings suggest that people with relatively low intelligence and poor perceptual abilities might be more susceptible to the misinformation effect.     

A Neuropsychological Approach to Intelligence

This paper proposes that current psychometric intelligence tests are limited in evaluating cognitive activity. From a neuropsychological perspective, they fail to measure some fundamental cognitive abilities such as executive functions, memory, and visuospatial abilities. The analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale presented shows that the original rationale for selecting the specific subtests included in the WAIS was unclear. The concept of a g factor in cognition is also analyzed, with the conclusion that the g factor continues to be controversial. The value of intelligence tests in predicting school performance is also criticized. It is proposed that the psychometric concept of general intelligence should be deleted from cognitive and neurological sciences. Finally, it is proposed that, in the future, neuropsychological instruments sensitive to more specific cognitive abilities replace current psychometric intelligence tests.     

General cognitive functioning and psycholinguistic abilities in children with Smith-Magenis Syndrome

This study is a neuropsycholinguistic research of a rare genetic syndrome with microdeletion that co-occurs with intellectual disabilities and relatively good language abilities, the Smith-Magenis Syndrome (SMS). Nevertheless, there are no cognitive and psycholinguistic profile analyses performed with Spanish population. In this sense, we characterized the cognitive and psycholinguistic profile of a sample with 9 participants with SMS (7 to 11 years of age). The cognitive and psychological profile was assessed with diverse standardized tests: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - IV version, Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Results suggest a specific cognitive and psychological profile characterized by a low IQ and relative good abilities in integrating information, whereas attention problems and hyperactive behaviors were displayed when interacting with the child during the assessment. This work is the first evidence of the cognitive and psycholinguistic profile characterization in patients with SMS in Spain, and will help to guide a more accurate diagnosis and differential intervention in rare genetic diseases with similar cognitive and psycholinguistic profiles.     

The predictive validity of nonverbal communicative skills in infants with perinatal hazards

This study investigated the predictive validity to 5 years of age of nonverbal communicative skills administered at 13 months. Subjects (N = 103) were Norwegian infants with birthweight below 1501 gms. The predictors included infant competence assessed by the Early Social-Communication Scales (ESCS). Cognitive competence at 2 years was measured by the Bayley Mental Development Scale, and at 3 and 5 years by the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition (SB:FE). Language competence at 2 and 3 years was assessed by the Reynell Developmental Language Scales, and at 5 years by a verbal comprehension factor derived from the SB:FE. Partial correlations and multiple regression analyses suggest that the infants' initiation of communication was related to cognitive ability and language skills up to 5 years of age. In particular, joint attention was the most consistent predictor of the subsequent competencies. The Bayley cognitive index was overruled as a predictor when used in combination with initiation of joint attention.     

A construct validation study of the Human Figure Drawing Test

To assess whether the Human Figure Drawing Test provides an assessment of nonverbal cognitive maturity, correlations for 31 youngsters who ranged in age from 6-0 to 10-10 on the Human Figure Drawing Test and the Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQs of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--Revised (WISC--R) were examined. Significant correlations were observed for each of the scales, but the value of .69 for drawings and WISC--R Performance IQs was significant, suggesting the assessment that these tests are largely nonverbal. Implications for the role of language were posited.     

Assessment of motor development and function in preschool children

The process of identification of children with delays or disorders in motor development includes developmental screening, examination, and reexamination. Throughout this process, various types of measures are used, including discriminative and evaluative measures. Discriminative and evaluative measures of motor development and function that are commonly used for preschool-aged children include the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II, Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, 2nd edition, Toddler and Infant Motor Evaluation, Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory, and Gross Motor Function Measure. Selecting an appropriate measure is a crucial part of the examination process and should be geared toward the purpose of testing and characteristics of the child. Evidence of reliability and validity are important considerations for selection of a measure.     

The structure of cognitive abilities in youths with manic symptoms: a factorial invariance study

This study compared the structure of cognitive ability (specifically, verbal/crystallized [Gc] and visual-spatial ability [Gv]), as measured in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, in youth with manic symptoms with a nationally representative group of similarly aged youth. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis found the majority of the estimated parameters were invariant between the groups, although there was a difference in the intercepts for the Similarities subtest and difference in unique variances for the Picture Completion, Comprehension, and Picture Arrangement subtests. Thus, although there are many neurological changes associated with manic symptoms, the structure of verbal/crystallized and visual-spatial abilities appear relatively robust and invariant. As Gc and Gv are the primary domains on all the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, results also indicate that clinical interpretation of the Wechsler scales may be appropriate to measure cognitive performance in youths with manic symptoms.     

Toward a Model of Neuropsychological Activity

The main purpose of this research was to establish the intercorrelations existing among different psychological and neuropsychological test scores in a normal and homogenous population. A second purpose was to attempt further step in the component analysis of cognitive activity measured by means of neuropsychological tests. A comprehensive neuropsychological test battery was assembled and individually administered to a 300-subject sample, aged 17–25 years-old. All of them were right-handed male university students. The battery included some basic neuropsychological tests directed to assess language, calculation abilities, spatial cognition, praxic abilities, memory, perceptual abilities, and executive functions. In addition, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale was administered. Forty-one different scores were calculated. Correlations among the different test scores were analyzed. It was found that some of the tests presented a quite complex intecorrelation system, whereas other tests presented few or no significant correlations. Mathematical ability tests and orthography knowledge represented the best predictors of Full Scale IQ. A factor analysis with varimax rotation disclosed five factors (verbal, visuoperceptual, executive function, fine movements, and memory) accounting for 63.6% of the total variance. Implications of these results for a neuropsychological model about brain organization of cognition were analyzed.     

Comparing the Stanford-Binet,fourth edition to the WISC-R: A concurrent validity study

This study focused on the concurrent validity of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 4th ed. (SB IV) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) in a homogeneous, nonexceptional sample of 32 early elementary school children. Despite the limited nature of the sample, the findings suggested that the SB IV has a significant positive relationship with the WISC-R. The tests displayed a moderate level of common variance. Intercorrelations partially supported the SB IV authors' predictions of relationship between the two instruments.     

Cognitive and psychomotor tests as predictors of on-road driving ability in older primary care patients

This study examined the accuracy with which different cognitive and psychomotor assessment tools were able to predict driving ability among older primary care patients. A cross-sectional study of 50 older drivers (with an average age of 73.1 ± 7.0 years) was conducted. Participants who had been referred by their physicians for psychological assessment following a fitness-to-drive examination underwent both an on-road driving test and a cognitive assessment protocol that included the Senior Drivers Battery (SDB) that is currently administered at the Mobility and Land Transports Institute (MLTI) in Portugal, the Useful Field of View (UFOV) test, the Stroke Drivers Screening Assessment (SDSA), Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination Revised (ACE-R), the Trail Making Test, the Key Search test, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) Vocabulary and Block Design tests. Logistic regression analysis revealed that the performances of the participants on the SDSA, ACE-R, UFOV and SDB were the best predictors of on-road driving. Specific measures of processing speed and divided attention, visuospatial abilities, executive functions, psychomotor speed and global cognitive functioning may be useful for predicting unsafe driving. The practical implications of these findings are discussed with a view to developing new assessment models for determining driving fitness in older adults.     

Timing and force control in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: subtype differences and the effect of comorbid developmental coordination disorder

This study examined the motor and performance outcomes of boys with subtypes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (DSM-IV, [American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed., Washington, DC, 1994]). It also examined the differences between boys with a single diagnosis of ADHD versus those who have the dual categorisation of ADHD and developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The participants were 157 boys, aged 7.70-12.98 years recruited from a community sample. Parent report was used to classify 143 boys into either a comparison group or one of the three DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. Participants were given a battery of tests that included the Movement Assessment Battery for Children [Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Brace-Jovanovich, New York, 1992], the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children--Third Edition [Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Psychological Corporation, New York, 1992] and a finger tapping task targeting motor processing, preparation, and execution. Boys with subtypes that included inattentive symptomatology had significant difficulties with timing, force output and showed greater variability in motor outcomes. Boys with the comorbid condition (i.e., ADHD and DCD) had particular difficulty with force control. These outcomes identify a need for increased recognition of the clinical and research implications of the relationship between ADHD and motor dysfunction. This potentially impacts on assessment, intervention, theoretical modelling and the general interpretation of cognitive abilities research with children with ADHD.     

Neuropsychology and psychopathology: A progress report

This paper summarizes and discusses the contributions of neuropsychological assessment to various forms of psychopathology. Emphasis is placed upon studies done with the Halstead-Reitan battery and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, but studies done with other neuropsychological test procedures are also reviewed. The conclusions reached are that neuropsychological tests are sensitive to functional regional brain disorganization in psychopathology, and that they are useful in the diagnostic process for a number of disorders including schizophrenia, psychopathy, mood disorders, and other psychiatric conditions.     

Psychodiagnostic test usage: a survey of the society for personality assessment

The present survey investigated psychodiagnostic test usage and practices of the Society for Personality Assessment. A brief questionnaire was forwarded to 400 SPA members and 206 responded for a 51.5% rate of return. Projective techniques found popular in previous surveys of Division 12 were the major assessment instruments utilized by SPA members. Exner's comprehensive system was the preferred mode of Rorschach analysis, followed by the Klopfer and Beck systems. The Wechsler Scales and the MMPI were frequently included in conducting a psychological battery. Personality assessment was mainly utilized for diagnostic purposes and as an indicator for type of therapy.     

Cognitive development of lead exposed children from ages 6 to 15 years: an application of growth curve analysis.

The effect of lead exposure on cognitive growth patterns was assessed in a longitudinal study of 196 children. Performances on tests of verbal comprehension and perceptual organization (Vocabulary & Block Design, Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children) were measured at ages 6.5, 11 and 15 years. Growth curve analyses revealed that the quadratic model best described the relationship between test scores and age. Children with higher lead levels, as measured at age 15 years, demonstrated lower verbal comprehension scores over time and greater decline in their rate of Vocabulary development at age 15 years, as compared to children with lower lead levels. Lead exposure was not significantly associated with growth in perceptual organization test scores. Socioeconomic status and maternal intelligence were statistically significantly associated with growth patterns for both test scores, independent of the effects of lead. The findings suggest that lead negatively impacts the developmental progression of specific cognitive skills from childhood through adolescence.     

Cognitive Development of Lead Exposed Children from Ages 6 to 15 Years: An Application of Growth Curve Analysis

The effect of lead exposure on cognitive growth patterns was assessed in a longitudinal study of 196 children. Performances on tests of verbal comprehension and perceptual organization (Vocabulary & Block Design, Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children) were measured at ages 6.5, 11 and 15 years. Growth curve analyses revealed that the quadratic model best described the relationship between test scores and age. Children with higher lead levels, as measured at age 15 years, demonstrated lower verbal comprehension scores over time and greater decline in their rate of Vocabulary development at age 15 years, as compared to children with lower lead levels. Lead exposure was not significantly associated with growth in perceptual organization test scores. Socioeconomic status and maternal intelligence were statistically significantly associated with growth patterns for both test scores, independent of the effects of lead. The findings suggest that lead negatively impacts the developmental progression of specific cognitive skills from childhood through adolescence.     

A multitrait–multimethod study of assessment instruments for complex problem solving

Recently published studies on Complex Problem Solving (CPS) suggest that assessments of CPS using multiple complex systems are only moderately related to tests of classical cognitive abilities. Further, CPS assessments show incremental validity beyond tests of other cognitive abilities when predicting relevant outcomes. However, these empirical accounts have relied on single CPS assessment instruments. We do not know whether these findings will generalize to the construct level across different CPS assessment instruments. To answer this question, we tested a sample of N = 339 German university students who completed three CPS assessment instruments based on multiple complex systems (MicroDYN, the Genetics Lab, and MicroFIN) and the matrices subtest of the Intelligence Structure Test as measure of reasoning. Students further reported their school grades. Analyses including latent multitrait–multimethod models provided support for the conceptualization of CPS as a complex cognitive ability. Results indicated that different CPS assessment instruments showed sufficient convergent validity (with a consistency mostly between .50 and .60). In addition, we found evidence for the divergent validity of CPS from reasoning (reasoning predicted two CPS facets, knowledge and control, β_KNOW = .49 and β_CON = .53, respectively). In the prediction of academic achievement, CPS explained variance in natural science grades after we controlled for reasoning (β_CPS = .22), whereas social science grades were not predicted. Our findings suggest that the validity of CPS generalizes across different measurement instruments.     

A United States Forensic Sample for the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales

The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales (GSS) is a valuable test to use as part of a comprehensive assessment of psychological and interrogative factors relevant to a defendant's vulnerability to giving a false or involuntary confession. One limitation of the test is that the manual only provides information for samples from Iceland and Great Britain. This report describes the results of 334 individuals in the United States, who were administered the tests as part of an evaluation to assess confession‐related issues in a forensic context (i.e., capacity to waive Miranda rights or vulnerability in providing a false or involuntary confession). This forensic sample includes both juveniles and adults. Results are consistent with Gudjonsson's British and Icelandic samples, in which the Yield 1 score is more affected by intellectual and cognitive variables, but Shift and, to a lesser extent, Yield 2 scores are more related to emotional and personality characteristics. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reading disability and the differential ability scales

This study contrasted the performance on the Differential Abilities Scales (DAS) of a carefully selected sample of reading-disabled children with a matched control group of children from the standardization sample. It was hypothesized that patterns on the DAS might be similar to those found on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised and on the British Abilities Scales (BAS). The results suggest that reading-disabled children as a group do demonstrate a characteristic profile on the DAS. They score relatively poorly on the achievement tests and on two of the three diagnostic tests, Recall of Digits and Recall of Objects. The one exception to complete profile similarity between the DAS and the BAS was Speed of Information Processing. In the present study, low scores on Speed of Information Processing did not characterize the reading-disabled children as a whole but did characterize a subgroup of reading-disabled children. Clusters of reading-disabled children were generated from the data, and specific profiles of subgroups of children are presented.