Validating self-report measures of state and trait anxiety against a physiological measure

While anxiety research frequently uses only self-report measures to assess dimensions of state and trait anxiety, the present study sought to corroborate these self-report measures using a physiological measure, namely heart rate. Another aim of the present study was to test the multidimensional interaction model of anxiety in a social evalua-tion situation (i.e., a seminar presentation), using a physiological measure of state anxiety. Graduate psychology students completed a state anxiety questionnaire and were attached to a heart rate recorder prior to a class seminar presentation. One week later, students completed trait and state anxiety questionnaires and were again at-tached to a heart rate recorder prior to seminar observation by others. Heart rate was elevated during seminar presentation relative to seminar observation, reached maxi-mum values during the first 15 minutes of seminar presentation and then decreased over time. State anxiety scores indicate that participants were experiencing consider-ably more anxiety just before presenting the seminar than just before observing a seminar. Heart rate during seminar presentation was significantly correlated with self-report state anxiety and self-report social evaluation trait anxiety, but not with seminar grade. Support was found for the multidimensional interaction model of anxiety using the physiological measure (i.e., heart rate). A modified version of this paper was presented at the 101^st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. This research was supported, in part, by Grant No. 410-94-1473 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) to the second author. The authors wish to thank the Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine for providing the Medilog recorders. Reprint requests should be sent to Norman S. Endler at the address above.     

The gulf war: Distressful reactions to scud missiles attacks

This study investigated the relationships among coping strategies, trait anxiety and distressful reactions (State anxiety and fears and symptoms) of Israeli civilians under missile attack during the 1991 Gulf war. During the war sixty-six subjects (46 females and 20 males) completed a questionnaire that measured their distressful reactions and included fears in various situations (e.g., during the night, in the sealed room) and various symptoms (e.g., sleep disturbances, sensitivity to noise). In addition each subject completed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS, Endler & Parker, 1990a), a multidimensional self-report measure of coping which measures three major coping strategies: task-oriented, emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented. Subjects also completed the State and Trait anxiety scales of the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS, Endler, Edwards, & Vitelli, 1991). The state anxiety scales measure two components of the individual's state anxiety, cognitive worry and autonomic emotional reactions. The trait anxiety scales measure the individual's predisposition to experience anxiety in four different situations: social evaluation, physical danger, ambiguous situations and daily routines. The results showed that individuals who used emotion-oriented coping more frequently, experienced more state anxiety and symptoms and fears, (i.e., experienced greater distress) during the war. Task-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping were not related to the distressful reactions. It was further found that subjects high on physical danger trait anxiety and social evaluation trait anxiety experienced greater fears and more symptoms (i.e., experienced greater distress) during the war. Persons high on social evaluation trait anxiety also experienced great cognitive-worry state anxiety. The results are discussed within the framework of the multidimensional model of stress, anxiety and coping (Endler, 1988; Endler & Parker, 1990a, 1990b) and the special characteristics of the Gulf war situation.     

Predicting state anxiety: A comparison of multidimensional and unidimensional trait approaches

Endler has proposed that trait anxiety is multidimensional, with individual differences varying across several dimensions of stressing situations. Despite empirical support for the independence of some dimensions, some researchers have employed a single score on a multidimensional measure of trait anxiety, summed from the dimension scale scores, as a singular measure of generalized trait anxiety. This violates the theoretical underpinnings of the approach. This study examined whether a total score on a multidimensional measure of trait anxiety could supplement the ability of individual dimension scale scores in predicting state anxiety responses to dimension-congruent stress. Thirty-two female college students who scored at differing levels of dimensional and general anxiety were required to perform two laboratory stress tasks under conditions of stress representing different dimensions of trait anxiety. The results provide support for a multidimensional approach to general trait anxiety but indicate some value of a total score in supplementing predictions based on individual scale scores. The data provide a cautionary note that a total score on a multidimensional measure is of little value unless full consideration is given to the profile of dimension scale scores.     

Trait reappraisal is associated with resilience to acute psychological stress

Life is full of stressful events. However, while some individuals are negatively affected by stress, others are more resilient to its effects. The factors that contribute to variability in stress resilience are not fully understood. Here, we tested the hypothesis that trait reappraisal would be associated with greater stress resilience to a first-time tandem skydive. Specifically, we expected measures of “anxiety” to be lower and measures of “euphoria” to be higher in high trait reappraising individuals. Our findings that trait reappraisal is negatively correlated with stress reactivity as measured by cortisol, heart rate, and self-report state anxiety, but positively correlated with self-report state euphoria suggest that individuals high in trait reappraisal are more stress resilient.     

Detecting Anxiety and Defensiveness from Visual and Auditory Cues

ABSTRACT Defensive individuals have been shown to differ from non-defensive individuals on a number of physiological and behavioral measures. We report two studies on observers' inferences of defensiveness, and the contribution of communication channels in the inference of defensiveness. Observers judged high and low state anxious segments of high and low trait anxious defensive and nondefensive individuals. Accurate assessments were made of (a) defensiveness, (b) state anxiety, and (c) trait anxiety: Individuals with higher levels of each variable were perceived as more anxious compared with the lower level. Effects for defensiveness and state anxiety were greater in audio-only segments, while effects for trait anxiety were greater in video-only segments. Inferences of defensiveness were greater at higher levels of state anxiety and trait anxiety. Low trait anxious defensive individuals were perceived as more anxious than the true low trait anxious. Results for defensiveness and trait anxiety were replicated in Study 2, and observers' perceptions of state anxiety matched individuals' self-reports: Defensive individuals with maximal differences between high and low state anxiety were seen as more anxious in high state anxiety, while defensive individuals with minimal differences between high and low state anxiety were regarded as less anxious in high state anxiety.     

Anxiety and performance in runners: Effects of stress and anxiety on physical performance

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of state and trait anxiety on physical performance under both neutral and stressful conditions. In Study I, 43 male and female track athletes answered the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and twice underwent ergometric testing in the physiology laboratory after receiving a neutral or a stress-inducing instruction. In Study II, these 43 runners completed the state scale shortly before a test run in a practice session and once again just before the start in an official competition. Results showed a significant increase in self-reported state anxiety under the stress condition in both the laboratory and the field setting. At the same time, the mean physical performance, measured as physiological performance parameters (maximum oxygen intake, physical work capacity) or as running performance, significantly deteriorated under stress. The induced stress affected the heart rate in addition to the mere physical work load, with no sign of compensation occurring during the entire period of ergometric testing. Effects of anxiety on performance were tested by separate 2(trait) × 3(state) ANOVAs for each situation. For both laboratory situations, and for the practice situation as well, no significant relationships, neither linear nor nonlinear, were detected. In the competition situation, however, an inverted-U relationship was found in the low trait-anxious subgroup.     

The Anxiety Response: Concordance Among Components

Under social-evaluative stress, self-reported distress (cognitive and somatic symptoms), behavioral anxiety (motor, facial, verbal, and social), physiological arousal (heart rate and skin resistance), and task performance (cognitive and motor) were recorded. Concordance was selective and consistent across response systems. There were significant relationships among measures of cognitive aspects, and among those concerned with somatic aspects, but not between these two areas. Furthermore, concordance was much higher in high-than in low-trait/test-anxiety participants, who even exhibited reversed concordance. These differences are explained in terms of stronger physiological signals in high trait/test anxiety. Alternative interpretations involving perceiving and/or reporting internal threat-related information in low trait/test anxiety are discussed.     

The impact of anxiety on sexual arousal in women

This study examined the impact of state anxiety, trait anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity on physiological and self-report measures of sexual arousal and sexual function in a non-clinical sample of women. Physiological sexual responses to an erotic stimulus were assessed using vaginal photoplethysmography, and subjective reactions were measured using questionnaires. Results suggested a curvilinear relationship between state anxiety and physiological sexual arousal (vaginal pulse amplitude; VPA). Trait anxiety and anxiety sensitivity were correlated with self-reported sexual arousal outside the laboratory. The findings may be interpreted in light of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) influences on sexual arousal and potential cognitive interference mechanisms associated with anxiety.     

Thought suppression enhances memory bias for threat material

The current study examined the impact of thought suppression on indices of anxiety, including memory indices (implicit and explicit memory biases) and physiological indices (heart rate). The participants, 81 undergraduates scoring in the top quartile of a self-report measure of trait anxiety, were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups: thought suppression (TS), thought concentration (TC), and thought wandering (TW). The TC and TW groups were included to control for the effects of effortful processing and exposure to stimuli, respectively. One block of threat words and one block of neutral words were presented under conditions of cognitive load, and participants' physiological responses and memory biases were measured. The thought suppression group exhibited an enhanced overall memory bias for threat words, driven by an elevated explicit memory bias, relative to the other two groups, a result that has implications for ironic processes theory and may inform information-processing models of anxiety.     

Temperament moderates the effect of the verbal threat information pathway on children's heart rate responses to novel animals

Temperamental variables such as trait anxiety are risk factors in children for the development of anxiety disorders. This experiment aimed to test whether temperament moderates the effect of verbal threat information on the physiological component of the fear emotion. An experiment is reported in which 6-10 year old children's (N = 54) fear beliefs about novel animals were measured. They were then given threat, positive or no verbal information about these animals following which their heart rate was recorded while they placed their hands in boxes that they believed these animals inhabited. Children also completed a questionnaire measure of trait anxiety. Child-reported temperament moderated the effect that threat information has on the physiological component of the fear emotion. Fear information is, therefore, a possible mechanism through which temperament leads children to acquire animal fears.     

Development of physiological response patterns concomitant with the learning of voluntary heart rate control.

Thirty-six male undergraduate students were instructed to raise or lower heart rate in a multiple-session biofeedback experiment. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, frontalis electromyographic activity, and skin conductance level were simultaneously recorded throughout biofeedback training. Principal axes factor analyses showed that physiological response patterning concomitant with the development of heart rate control was different early in training (Training Session 1) than it was late in training (Training Session 4) for both speeding and slowing conditions. These results indicate that different heart rate control strategies were used by the subjects early and late in training. The factor patterns also indicated a tendency for greater heart rate response specificity as training progressed for both speeding and slowing. Heart rate speeding sessions were also found to be associated with a significant increase in perceived state anxiety as measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. No significant change in perceived anxiety state, however, was associated with heart rate slowing.     

Behavioral validation of the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index in children

Examined the construct validity of the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index (CASI) in young children through the use of a behavioral challenge task. Elementary-school children completed the CASI as well as self-report measures of state and trait anxiety and subjective fear prior to and immediately following a stair-stepping task designed to increase physiological arousal. Results indicate that the CASI was a significant predictor of the degree of state anxiety and subjective fear reported in response to the challenge task, even after controlling for pretask levels of state anxiety and fear, respectively. Additionally, the CASI predicted changes in fear experienced in response to the challenge task. The findings lend support to the validity of the CASI in preadolescent children and suggest that the CASI possesses unique clinical utility relative to measures of trait anxiety. However, results of this study must be interpreted cautiously, because a large portion of the variance in response to arousal was left unaccounted for by the CASI and the overall model.     

Multidimensionality of state and trait anxiety: A cross-cultural study comparing american,canadian, israeli and german young adults

Abstract

The psychometric adequacy of the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS) was examined in samples of American, Canadian, Israeli, and West German male and female young adults. Also investigated was the generalizability of the interactional model of anxiety to a diverse set of cultural contexts. This interactional model distinguishes between multidimensional dimensions of state and trait anxiety. The EMAS was developed to both reliably and independently assess multidimensional state and trait anxiety. Three hundred and seventy-four American undergraduates, 292 Canadian undergraduates, 326 Israeli undergraduates, and 304 West German undergraduates completed the EMAS in a non-stressful situation. The EMAS subscales were found to be highly reliable scales in all four cultural groups. Consistent empirical support was found across cultural groups for both the distinction between state and trait anxiety and the multidimensionality of these two constructs. Significant gender and cultural differences were found across the various EMAS subscales. Women were more likely than men to report being anxious in social evaluation and physical danger situations. In comparison to the other 3 groups, the Israelis reported being less anxious in social evaluation and physical danger situations. Results are discussed in terms of cultural differences between Canada, the United States, West Germany and Israel.     

The Relationship of a Measure of Frustration Intolerance with Emotional Dysfunction in a Student Sample

This study extended earlier research (Harrington in Cong Ther Res 30:699–709, 2006) on the relationship of the multidimensional Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) with measures of depressed mood, anxiety and anger, independent of self-esteem. The study employed a non-clinical student sample (N = 323) and measures of both state and trait anger and anxiety. In addition, the Unconditional Self-Acceptance Questionnaire (USAQ) was also used to specifically assess REBT self-acceptance beliefs regarding self-worth, as well as a measure of self-esteem. A Serbian version of the FDS was developed for use in the study. Consistent with the earlier research, significant predictive relationships were found, whilst controlling for self-worth, between entitlement and anger, emotional intolerance and anxiety, and discomfort intolerance with depressed mood. Emotional intolerance also proved to be a significant positive predictor of depression, whilst achievement frustration had a negative relationship with depression. Overall, the FDS dimensions had a weaker relationship with emotional states than traits. The results are discussed in regard to the relationship between FDS dimensions and dysfunctional emotions in a non-clinical sample.     

The Self-Control and Self-Management Scale (SCMS): Development of an Adaptive Self-Regulatory Coping Skills Instrument

Self-control and self-management skills (SCMSk) represent a cognitive-behavioral coping skills model that has been successfully applied to assessment and treatment. Nevertheless, no general adult self-report instrument has been developed to measure this important construct. The 16-item Self-Control and Self-Management Scale (SCMS) was developed as a new adult self-report instrument designed to be a general trait measure of SCMSk. In Study 1, the item pool was generated and revised based on the current literature and feedback from content validity experts. In Study 2, based on responses from a multiethnic student sample (n = 302), factor analytic procedures and rational item selection were used to produce a reliable and construct valid instrument. The findings of both studies support the further evaluation of the SCMS as a research and applied instrument, and suggest its potential current use in student and counseling settings given obtained relationships with anxiety, depression, and weight-management competencies.     

Distinguishing between cognitive and somatic trait and state anxiety in children

The study was conducted to develop self-report measures of cognitive and somatic trait and state anxiety for children and to evaluate the utility of distinguishing between cognitive and somatic anxiety. Sixty-seven fourth grade children anticipated and then performed a mathematics task either in a high- or low-stress condition. While the children anticipated performing the task, measures of seven cognitive behaviors were obtained by means of both a think aloud procedure and a questionnaire. The results of the study indicated that reliable trait and state measures of cognitive and somatic anxiety were successfully developed. Further, the trait measures of cognitive and somatic anxiety were found to be relatively impervious to induced anxiety states. As expected, cognitive trait anxiety but not somatic trait or state anxiety was found to be related to task performance. High cognitive state and/or trait anxiety was found to be associated with more preoccupation and performance denigration as well as taking less of an analytic attitude toward the situation. Somatic trait and state anxiety were found to be associated with preoccupation. In general, the results support the construct validity of the measures developed and the utility of distinguishing between cognitive and somatic anxiety in children.     

Performance perceptions and self-focused attention predict post-event processing after a real-life social performance situation

Background and Objectives: Cognitive approaches to social anxiety suggest that an excessive brooding about one's performance in a social situation (post-event processing; PEP) is involved in the maintenance of anxiety. To date, most studies investigating PEP were conducted in laboratory settings. The present study sought to replicate previous findings on predictors of PEP after a naturalistic social performance situation. Methods: Sixty-five students, who had to give an evaluated presentation for credits, completed measures of trait social anxiety. Immediately after their presentation, participants rated state anxiety and attentional focus during the presentation, and provided an overall evaluation of their performance. One week after the presentation, they rated PEP during the preceding week, and reappraised their performance. Results: Regression analyses demonstrated that the performance ratings after and self-focused attention during the presentation were unique predictors of PEP over and above the effects of trait and state anxiety. There was no evidence that PEP was associated with a biased recall of individual performance evaluations. Conclusions: The results support cognitive theories that emphasize the importance of negative self-perceptions in the development of social anxiety and related processes, and underline self-focused attention and self-evaluative processes as important targets during treatment.     

Separation Anxiety,Perceived Controllability,and Homesickness1

The present study examined the multidimensional interactionism model of anxiety, stress, and coping by investigating trait separation anxiety, controllability, and homesickness in 152 university students living away from home. Participants completed measures of trait separation anxiety, state anxiety, perceived controllability of the situation, and homesickness. Correlational tests confirmed that trait separation anxiety and homesickness were associated. Also, low perceived controllability was associated with state anxiety and homesickness. Finally, tests of a mediational model confirmed that both perceived controllability of the situation and state anxiety are significant mediators of the association between trait separation anxiety and homesickness. The findings provide support for models of homesickness that focus on diminished sense of personal control and proximity to attachment figures.     

Internalising symptoms and verbal working memory in school‐age children: A processing efficiency analysis

The current study investigated differential contributions of internalising symptoms (state anxiety, trait anxiety, depression) to school‐age children's verbal short‐term (STM) and working memory (WM) span accuracy and efficiency (microanalysis of response times). Children's (N = 125, M_age = 11.44 years) STM/WM was assessed with simple/complex span tasks. Our analyses revealed that: (a) children with high levels of state anxiety displayed reduced simple span accuracy (on Word span) and poorer efficiency on both simple (preparatory intervals, interword pauses) and complex span (preparatory intervals) response time segments; (b) trait anxiety was a negative predictor of children's complex span accuracy, as well as their efficiency on both simple (word durations) and complex span (interword pauses) response time measures; (3) depressive symptoms predicted longer simple span interword pauses. Findings indicate that while all internalising symptoms were predictive of children's poorer memory search efficiency, especially during the “silent”, executive intervals (interword pauses), anxiety symptoms were specifically predictive of children's impaired span accuracy and other efficiency indicators (preparatory intervals, word durations). The study highlights the differential contributions of state, trait anxiety, and depressive symptoms to STM/WM in children, emphasising the need to measure both accuracy and efficiency to assess the role that such symptoms play in children's performance.