结构因素对阅读保持影响的研究

本研究探讨文章阅读过程中结构因素对文章信息保持的影响作用。包括两个实验。实验 1探讨阅读文章结构是否清晰及主体对文章结构是否有清晰的把握对文章信息保持的影响效果。结果表明 ,阅读的文章结构越清晰 ,主体对文章结构把握能力越强 ,越能促进文章的信息保持。实验 2进一步探讨文章的结构清晰及主体对文章结构的清晰把握促进的是何种信息的保持。结果证明 ,结构清晰与否促进的是文章的主要信息的保持 ,而对文章的细节性信息促进作用不大。本研究结果表明 ,文章的结构因素对阅读保持有促进作用 ,主要是促进文章的主要信息的保持。     

In sight but out of mind: do competing views test the limits of perception without awareness?

Over a century's worth of research suggests that "perception" without awareness is a genuine phenomenon. However, relatively little research has explored the question of whether all visually presented information activates representations in long term memory without awareness. Two experiments explored the use of a figure-ground display consisting of competing views in which one view dominates the other such that subjects are (initially) unaware of the non-dominant view. Neither experiment provided evidence that the non-dominant view (an embedded word) activated its representation in long term memory when the subject failed to report being aware of the embedded word in that priming was not seen on a subsequent stem completion task. In contrast, priming was seen when subjects reported being aware of the embedded word. It is suggested that two competing figure-ground relations are not concurrently computed unconsciously.     

语篇理解中背景信息的激活: 情景限制的共振过程

该研究采用双人物线索语篇材料,对语篇理解中背景信息激活过程的共振模型与剧景模型进行检验。实验一发现,如果主角和配角一直同时在故事情景中成为主线索,则目标句中主角的行为可以激活那些经过屏蔽的、与这一行为相关的配角特征。在实验二中,配角只是在特征描述段落中出现,而后通过适当的描述使其在故事情景中消失,使主角成为故事的主线索,结果发现,此时目标句中主角的行为并不会激活经过屏蔽的配角的特征描述。这些结果表明,背景信息的激活虽然具有共振的特点,但共振并不是无范围限制的,而是一种情景限制下的共振。     

The Use of Stereotypical Gender Information in Constructing a Mental Model: Evidence from English and Spanish

Four experiments were carried out to investigate how general knowledge about the stereotypical gender of participants in a text influences comprehension. A self-paced reading task was used to present short texts comprising one, two, or three sentences. The first sentence of each text introduced a stereotypically masculine or feminine participant (e.g. doctor, nurse), or a neutral one. The last sentence introduced a pronoun (he/she) that could match or mismatch the gender of the referent. The first experiment, which was carried out in English, showed that reading times for the last sentence were longer when there was a mismatch than when there was a match between the gender of the pronoun in the last sentence and the stereotypical gender of the referent in the first sentence. In contrast to English, the gender of the participant can be disambiguated by a preceding article ( el / la ) in Spanish. The results of the second, third, and fourth experiments, which were carried out in Spanish, showed that reading times for the first sentences were longer when there was a mismatch than when there was a match between the gender of the article and the stereotypical gender of the participant. However, reading times for the last sentences did not differ. Overall, the results suggest that information about the stereotypical gender of the participants in a text is incorporated into the representation as soon as it becomes available, and that it affects the ease with which the text is understood.     

Beyond sentence boundaries: Grammatical gender information in short-term recall of texts

In the context of text recall it is often stated that surface representations are quickly forgotten. Jarvella (1971) and Sachs (1967) argued that what is retained beyond sentence boundaries is meaning information, whereas lexical and syntactic information is only available for the most recent constituent. We based a text recall experiment on Jarvella’s paradigm, in order to demonstrate that both meaning and grammatical gender information contribute to the recall of short text passages. Although it is known that grammatical gender information is used in anaphor resolution, even if noun and pronoun do not belong to adjacent sentences, there is no direct evidence for a gender contribution to text memory so far. The present experiment demonstrates that grammatical gender information, even when of no semantic importance, is retained beyond sentence boundaries and can contribute to the memory representation of subsequent text. All materials and additional statistics may be downloaded from mc.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental.     

时间距离对记叙文倒叙信息表征的影响

采用移动窗口技术和探测——再认范式探讨了时间距离对记叙文倒叙信息表征的影响。本研究分为两个实验：实验1考察了在近时间距离条件下读者如何表征倒叙信息,结果发现读者会根据时间顺序,把倒叙信息整合到他们的表征中去,支持时间顺序假设;实验2考察了在远时间距离条件下读者如何表征倒叙信息,结果发现读者会根据文本叙述顺序,将倒叙信息作为背景信息整合到该事件中去,支持背景假设。上述结果表明,时间距离是影响读者如何对倒叙信息进行表征的重要因素。     

Comprehension and belief structure

Abstract.— A reader's belief structure is suggested to affect the way he processes incoming information. It is analyzed in terms of what propositions the reader regards as true (the truth values) and of how the reader discriminates between propositions as to truth value (the discrimination index). In a study on 20 psychology students, the comprehension task involved matching single statements to a previously read text. The statements represented two different ideas, whereas the text represented only one. The subjects' belief structure in terms of statements accepted (truth value) and statements discriminated as to truth value (discrimination index) was related to the way in which they matched the same Statements to the previously read text (comprehension). Truth values and discrimination indices together were found to account for 39% of the interindividual variation in comprehension after the first reading and for 50 % of that variation after the second reading. It is suggested that a reader, when confronted with a new text, arrives at the most probable interpretation of that text by turning to his own belief structure.     

文本阅读双加工理论与实验证据

文本阅读信息加工过程研究一直是国内外心理学界高度重视和关注的领域, 形成了建构主义理论、最低限度假设理论和记忆基础文本加工理论等派别百家争鸣的局面。这些理论争议的焦点在于自然阅读是主动的、积极的、目标策略驱动的过程, 还是被动的、消极的、自动的过程。在全面总结国内外心理学界有关文本阅读的研究成果的基础上, 文本阅读双加工理论提出并对文本阅读的主要争议进行了整合。该理论的核心观点是文本的自然阅读过程是连贯阅读与焦点阅读的双加工过程。文本阅读中读者所阅读的材料特点不同, 引发的阅读信息加工活动也不同, 而不同性质的阅读过程, 又会引发不同的推理整合, 从而会建构不同类型的文本表征。文本阅读双加工理论已经形成了比较完整的理论框架, 并获得了很多实验证据的支持。当然, 文本阅读双加工理论作为一个新的理论, 其中的有些观点还需要进一步检验。在未来的文本阅读研究领域, 有很多问题还需要研究者进一步关注。     

Accessing distant premise information: how memory feeds reasoning

According to current psychological models of deduction, people can draw inferences on the basis of information that they receive from different sources at different times. In 3 reading-comprehension experiments, the authors demonstrated that premises that appear far apart in a text (distant) are not accessed and are therefore not used as a basis for logical inferences (Experiment 1), unless the premises are reinstated by a contextual cue (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, the authors investigated whether these deductions are then integrated into the reader's situation model of the text. The results are interpreted in terms of a collaboration between memory-based text processing and higher level schema-driven logical reasoning.     

Characterizing the intuitive representation in problem solving: Evidence from evaluating mathematical strategies

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the nature of the intuitive problem representation used in evaluating mathematical strategies. The first experiment tested between two representations: a representation composed of principles and an integrated representation. Subjects judged the correctness of unseen math strategies based only on the answers they produced for a set of temperature mixture problems. The distance of the given answers from the correct answers and whether the answers violated one of the principles of temperature mixture were manipulated. The results supported the principle representation hypothesis. In the second experiment we manipulated subjects’ understanding of an acid mixture task with a brief paragraph of instruction on one of the principles. Subjects then completed an estimation task intended to measure their understanding of the problem domain. The evaluation task from the first experiment was then presented, but with acid mixture instead of temperature mixture. The results showed that intuitive understanding of the domain mediates the effect of instruction on evaluating problems. Additionally, the results supported the hypothesis that subjects perform a mapping process between their intuitive understanding and math strategies.     

Processing of text containing artificial inclusion relations

The present studies were based on the hypothesis that the majority of college students have available to them the appropriate schema for understanding set inclusion relations, but that various factors influence the likelihood that the schema is used in the processing of text containing artificial inclusion relations. Although group data did not support this hypothesis, the data of individual subjects could be readily interpreted as resulting from the selection of one of a small set of representational schemata. Among the factors shown to influence schema selection were the choice of sentence frame used to present each relation, the presence or absence of real-world contextual information, and the structure (simple vs. complex) of the underlying inclusion relation. In addition, one experiment showed that the processes used in constructing a mental representation of an inclusion relation and in retrieving information from the representation are similar to those used with linear orderings.     

Evidence of immediate activation of gender information from a social role name

Two experiments investigated whether the stereotypical gender of a character is encoded immediately into the discourse representation and influences later comprehension. In Experiment 1 people read, and were confused by, a short story in which an incongruity arises at the end if the gender of a character introduced by a social role name has been inferred. In Experiment 2 online measures confirmed that readers were slower to read the final clause of the passage. In addition, a follow-up verification question revealed that these readers did not immediately resolve the inconsistency by inferring the appropriate gender for the role term. These findings provide strong evidence for gender activation at the time that a role name is encoded. The implications of these results for the mental representation of gender information and for constraints on inference during text comprehension are discussed.     

GENDER BIAS IN HUMAN ANATOMY TEXTBOOK ILLUSTRATIONS

The hypothesis that female and male bodies are equally represented in human anatomy text illustrations was tested to determine whether medical students are shown both females and males as possessing equally important and normal bodies in medical school instructional material. All anatomy texts currently in use in a major western medical school (N = 8) were surveyed. In text sections dealing with standard (non-gender-specific) anatomy, male subjects were shown in 64% of the illustrations in which gender was discernable, females were shown in 11%, and gender-neutral or equal representations were shown in 25%. Females and males were found to be represented approximately equally in chapters on urogenital (gender-specific) anatomy (45 % female, 48% male, 7% neutral or equal representation). The implications of these findings for the perpetuation of sexist attitudes in the medical profession are discussed.     

Evidence of immediate activation of gender information from a social role name

Two experiments investigated whether the stereotypical gender of a character is encoded immediately into the discourse representation and influences later comprehension. In Experiment 1 people read, and were confused by, a short story in which an incongruity arises at the end if the gender of a character introduced by a social role name has been inferred. In Experiment 2 online measures confirmed that readers were slower to read the final clause of the passage. In addition, a follow-up verification question revealed that these readers did not immediately resolve the inconsistency by inferring the appropriate gender for the role term. These findings provide strong evidence for gender activation at the time that a role name is encoded. The implications of these results for the mental representation of gender information and for constraints on inference during text comprehension are discussed.     

The use of superficial and meaning-based representations in interpreting pronouns: Evidence from Spanish

Abstract

In this paper, we address the question of whether a representation of the surface form of a text is directly implicated in the interpretation of definite pronouns in that text. According to an influential theory proposed by Sag and Hankamer (1984), it should not be, because definite pronouns are model-interpretive anaphors that take their meaning from elements in a representation of content. We report three experiments in Spanish, a language with non-semantic gender, in which pronouns can match their antecedents on the basis of morphosyntactic properties alone. The first experiment suggested that a surface representation might not be implicated in the interpretation of pronouns, since a gender match speeded only the interpretation of pronouns referring to people and not those referring to things. However, a questionnaire study (Experiment 2) confirmed that our strategy of modelling the Spanish sentences in Experiment 1 on sentences used in English studies had affected the results, and a further on-line experiment provided evidence that the interpretation of pronouns referring to things can be speeded by a gender match (Experiment 3). We discuss the implication of these findings for theories of text comprehension.     

主角情绪和时间信息对情境模型加工的影响

采用移动窗口技术探讨了情境模型加工中主角情绪与时间转换因素对情境模型加工的影响。实验1采用单因素被试内设计, 结果显示, 关键句的阅读时间模式为：放松-放松=担心-放松<放松-担心=担心-担心。实验2采用4×2两因素被试内设计, 结果在担心-担心模式下大的时间转换比小的时间转换的阅读时间长, 而时间转换因素对于主角情绪状态是担心-放松、放松-放松和放松-担心模式的加工没有影响。实验结果表明, 读者在阅读语篇时实时追踪主角的情绪状态, 出现了部分的情绪转换效应。阅读中读者体验到的积极的情绪状态有利于情境模型的建构, 相反, 体验到的消极的情绪状态会妨碍情境模型的建构。时间转换因素在一定程度上影响了对主角情绪状态的加工, 主角担心-担心的情绪状态在大的时间转换条件下, 前后两种相同的消极情绪可能会产生一种叠加效应, 使读者的情境模型加工更加困难; 而在小的时间转换条件下, 读者对从放松转向担心的情绪状态的加工会花费更多的认知资源。     

The production of determiners: evidence from French.

In numerous languages determiner forms depend not only on semantic information but also on several other kinds of information, such as the grammatical gender of the controlling noun or the phonological properties of the context. In the present research we contrasted two possible accounts of determiner retrieval: one in which every type of required information is bundled into a unitized representation for determiner retrieval and one in which each type of information can individually activate determiner forms. These alternative hypotheses were investigated in three experiments in which native speakers of French named pictures with simple [determiner + noun] or complex [determiner + adjective + noun] noun phrases. In the experiments, the properties of the contextual cues that drive the retrieval of the determiner were manipulated - for example, we manipulated the number of determiner forms that are compatible with a given grammatical gender and the number of grammatical genders that a given determiner form can be used with. Neither hypothesis can fully account for the results of the three experiments. However, a hybrid hypothesis that combines the principal features of the two hypotheses provides a good account of the data.     

The influence of uncertainty and premovement visual information on manual aiming

Target-aiming studies in which premovement visual information is manipulated suggest that when vision is occluded, a brief visual representation of the target environment may be used to guide movement. The purpose of this work was to determine if the internal representation contains information about the whole movement environment or just specific information about the position of a single target goal. Two experiments were conducted in which we manipulated both target uncertainty and the visual information available before and during a target-aiming movement. Radial error differences between visual conditions and the independence of the vision and uncertainty manipulations support the hypothesis that subjects form a representation of the overall movement environment.