The DRD4 VNTR polymorphism moderates craving after alcohol consumption.

Recent research has suggested that alterations in mesolimbic dopamine neurotransmission are central to the development and expression of craving for alcohol. Because the D4 dopamine receptor gene, variable numbers of tandem repeats (DRD4 VNTR) polymorphism putatively expresses functional differences in dopamine receptors, the present study tested whether this polymorphism influences the effects of a priming dose of alcohol on craving. Participants consumed 3 alcoholic drinks or 3 control drinks and completed measures of craving after each drink. Participants who were homozygous or heterozygous for the 7 (or longer) repeat allele were classified as DRD4 L, whereas the other participants were classified as DRD4 S. Results suggested that DRD4 L participants demonstrated significantly higher craving after consumption of alcohol as compared with the control beverage.     

Counterconditioning of appetitive and defensive CRs in rabbits

Two experiments examined interactions between conditioned appetitive and defensive responses in the rabbit. In Experiment I, a conditioned jaw-movement response was established by following presentations of a clicker CS with intra-oral sucrose delivery on 50% of trials. The jaw-movement response was then maintained on this partial reinforcement schedule during a counterconditioning phase. A group which received para-orbital shock paired with the CS on non-sucrose trials showed acquisition of eyeblink responding and suppression of jaw-movement responding to the CS, in comparison to control groups which received either no shock or unpaired presentations of the CS and shock. Experiment II was identical in design to Experiment I except that the roles of the sucrose and shock reinforcers were reversed. The paired group acquired a conditioned jaw-movement response when sucrose was added in the counterconditioning phase, but in contrast to Experiment I showed a slight enhancement of the previously established eyeblink response. The asymmetry of appetitive and defensive counterconditioning was discussed in relation to opponent-process theories of motivation and reinforcement.     

Transfer and Counterconditioning of Conditional Control in the Rabbit Nictitating Membrane Response

Two experiments using the rabbit nictitating membrane response investigated whether training in one conditional discrimination (A X+, B X-), enabled the feature cues (A and B) to modulate responding to another CS (Y) trained as a target stimulus in a second conditional discrimination (C Y+, D Y-). There was near-complete transfer of the feature cue's conditional control, indicating that the feature cue's ability to modulate responding is not based on an association specific to the training target. Experiment 2 also revealed that the role of a stimulus to act as a conditional cue is affected by its ability to act as a simple conditioned excitor or inhibitor. Following initial acquisition of two conditional discriminations, two feature cues were reinforced in a pattern consistent with the initial conditional discrimination (A +, B-), whereas the other two feature cues were reinforced in the reverse pattern to that of the original conditional discrimination (C-, D +). Subsequent tests revealed that the reversed training of the feature cues interfered with the original conditional discriminations. The results are consistent with theories that the feature cue gains an association with a representation of the emotional attributes of the US, which acts to modulate responding to the target stimulus through a diffuse change in motivational level. However, hierarchical theories of conditional discriminations that assume a lack of CS-specificity may also be able to explain the findings.     

Modality-specific imagery reduces cravings for food: an application of the elaborated intrusion theory of desire to food craving

Based on converging evidence that visual and olfactory images are key components of food cravings, the authors tested a central prediction of the elaborated intrusion theory of desire, that mutual competition between modality-specific tasks and desire-related imagery can suppress such cravings. In each of Experiments 1 and 2, 90 undergraduate women underwent an imaginal food craving induction protocol and then completed either a visual, auditory, or olfactory imagery task. As predicted, the visual and olfactory imagery tasks were superior to the auditory imagery task in reducing participants' craving for food in general (Experiment 1) and for chocolate in particular (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 replicated these findings in a sample of 96 women using a nonimagery craving induction procedure involving a combination of chocolate deprivation and exposure to chocolate cues. Thus, imagery techniques in the visual or olfactory domain hold promise for treating problematic cravings in disordered eating populations.     

Counterconditioning in the treatment of spider phobia: effects on disgust, fear and valence

From the perspective that disgust is a core feature of spider phobia, we investigated whether the treatment efficacy could be improved by adding a counterconditioning procedure. Women with a clinically diagnosed spider phobia (N = 34) were randomly assigned to the regular one-session exposure condition (EXP) or to the exposure with counterconditioning condition (CC). In the CC-condition tasty food-items were used during the regular exposure exercises and the participants' favourite music was played. Both treatment conditions appeared very effective in reducing avoidance behaviour and self-reported fear of spiders, strongly attenuated the disgusting properties of spiders and altered the affective evaluations in a positive direction. CC was not more effective in altering the affective valence of spiders than EXP and was not superior with respect to the long term treatment efficacy at 1 year follow up. Apparently, regular exposure treatment is already quite effective in altering the affective-evaluative component of spider phobia and it remains to be seen whether it is possible to further improve treatment outcome by means of procedures which are specifically designed to reduce the spiders' negative affective valence.     

Shaking That Icky Feeling: Effects of Extinction and Counterconditioning on Disgust-Related Evaluative Learning

Learned disgust appears to play an important role in certain anxiety disorders, and can be explained by the process of evaluative conditioning, in which an affective evaluative reaction evoked by an unconditional stimulus (US) is transferred to a conditional stimulus (CS). Much remains unknown about how disgust-related evaluative learning can be effectively eliminated. Study 1 of the present investigation examined the effects of extinction on reducing the negative evaluation of a CS that was acquired during disgust conditioning. Participants completed acquisition trials, with a disgusting picture as US and two neutral pictures as CS (CS + was paired with the US; CS- was unpaired), followed by extinction trials ("CS only"; experimental condition) or a filler task (control condition). Extinction trials reduced acquired US expectancy to the CS +, but did not extinguish negative evaluations of the CS +. Study 2 examined the effects of counterconditioning on evaluative learned disgust. After disgust acquisition trials, counterconditioning trials followed in which the CS + was paired with a pleasant US (experimental condition) or a filler task (control condition). Counterconditioning trials reduced acquired US expectancy to the CS + and reduced evaluative conditioned disgust. Implications of the potential differential effects of extinction and counterconditioning on evaluative learning for exposure-based treatment of specific anxiety disorders are discussed.     

The Effect of Counterconditioning on Evaluative Responses and Harm Expectancy in a Fear Conditioning Paradigm

In fear conditioning, extinction targets harm expectancy as well as the fear response, but it often fails to eradicate the negative affective value that is associated with the conditioned stimulus. In the present study, we examined whether counterconditioning can serve to reduce evaluative responses within fear conditioning. The sample consisted of 70 nonselected students, 12 of whom were men. All participants received acquisition with human face stimuli as the conditioned stimuli and an unpleasant white noise as the unconditioned stimulus. After acquisition, one third of the sample was allocated to an extinction procedure. The other participants received counterconditioning with either a neutral stimulus (neutral tone) or a positive stimulus (baby laugh). Results showed that counterconditioning (with both neutral and positive stimuli), in contrast to extinction, successfully reduced evaluative responses. This effect was found on an indirect measure (affective priming task), but not on self-report. Counterconditioning with a positive stimulus also tended to enhance the reduction of conditioned skin conductance reactivity. The present data suggest that counterconditioning procedures might be a promising approach in diminishing evaluative learning and even expectancy learning in the context of fear conditioning.     

药物成瘾者相关线索反应的自动化用药行为特征及其消退

采用ERP技术考察海洛因成瘾者相关线索下的用药行为的性质和神经机制, 在此基础上结合虚拟现实技术(VR)和途径偏向矫正训练(AAT), 探究基于“相关线索-习惯性用药”联结的自动化用药行为的动作消退、替代训练的有效性。研究发现, (1)相比对照线索, 成瘾者在相关线索下的反应时更长, N1波幅更小, N1潜伏期更短; 相比对照组被试, 成瘾者在相关线索下的行为任务的正确率更低, 反应时更长, N1波幅更小; N1波幅的组间组内差异和潜伏期的组内差异主要集中在中央区。(2)结合VR技术的途径偏向矫正训练后, 训练组被试的生理指标和途径偏向系数显著降低, 且显著低于对照组被试; 追踪测试中, 训练组被试的分数显著低于对照组。这表明相关线索下成瘾者的用药行为具有自动化、无意识的性质, 感觉运动区N1的异常活动是其神经机制之一。VR提取用药动作记忆-AAT消退替代训练, 可以有效削弱或消退成瘾者的成瘾动作倾向, 而且训练效果持续性较好, 可达到减少或停止现实情境中的用药和复吸行为的目的。     

The concept of craving and its measurement.

By encouraging short periods of abstinence, conditions representing high and low craving were arranged in the homes of 10 alcoholic subjects on two separate occasions. The alcoholic's subjective, physiological and behavioural responses and their interrelationships over a three and a half-hour response prevention period, were recorded in an attempt to define the concept of craving. A behavioural measure, speed of drinking a prescribed amount of alcohol, was validated as a correlate of craving.     

Counterconditioning and exposure-only in the treatment of specific (conditioned suppression) and generalized fear in rats

In Experiment 1 the conditioned suppression technique was used to condition specific fear, suppression of operent lever pressing for food to a discrete CS. The efficacy of four treatment conditions on fear reduction was evaluated. Counterconditioning in which exposure to the CS was contiguously paired with food was significantly less effective than noncontiguous CS exposure and food. An exposure-only effect was indicated by the superiority of all three treatments involving CS exposure (the above two plus a typical conditioned suppression extinction procedure) to treatment consisting of food only. The reverse counterconditioning effect and the exposure effect are consistent with current views that emphasize the centrality of aversive stimulus exposure in fear reduction. Experiment 2 investigated elimination of generalized fear produced by unsignalled, inescapable shocks in the lever-pressing apparatus. Two treatments (counterconditioning and exposure-only) were equally effective and they were superior to no exposure control treatment. The results of the two experiments reinforce recent attempts toward a reevaluation of the role of anxiety-competing responses in elimination of fear.     

Perceived and actual ages of workers

An inventory investigating the perceived average age of people employed in various occupations was administered to 150 respondents. The results suggest that certain occupations are perceived as occupied by relatively young individuals and others by older workers. Subjects' perceptions of the average age of people employed in various occupations were found to be basically in agreement with the actual age of workers in the occupations listed on the questionnaire. The data also revealed significant relationships between the age of the respondent and perceived average age of workers. The results are discussed in terms of the implications they provide for future research focused on the assessment of age stereotypes of occupations.     

出世与入世之间——论道教伦理之要义

宗教伦理思想和道德学说既是宗教神学理论的一个重要组成部分,又是宗教修行实践的指导,是宗教信徒日常生活中的行为规范和原则。因此宗教伦理思想比起宗教的其他神学理论,在教徒中有着更广泛和深入的影响,对教徒的精神和社会生活具有不可替代的作用。道教伦理是以道教信仰为基础的人伦准则和社会行为规范。道教以其“仙道贵生”的生命伦理、“尊道贵德”的社会伦理、“敬神感通”的神学伦理以及“道法自然”与“知和曰常”的生态伦理,涵盖了人与个体(自我)生命、人与人、人与神、人与自然等多重道德关系,以其特有的方式,传递着社会系统的思…     

Return of experimentally induced chocolate craving after extinction in a different context: divergence between craving for and expecting to eat chocolate

Unlike in fear conditioning, little attention has been devoted to extinction and renewal in appetitive conditioning, despite its relevance for extinction-based addiction treatments. We developed a paradigm, using a specific tray as a conditioned stimulus (CS) for eating chocolate (unconditioned stimulus, US), to investigate the effects of context change on acquisition and extinction of conditioned chocolate craving using an ABA renewal design. In Study 1 (n=32), participants successfully acquired chocolate craving, but unlike what is commonly observed in fear conditioning, craving did not extinguish. In Study 2, we separately assessed craving and US expectancy in a between-subjects design (n=64). US-expectancy data showed acquisition, extinction and renewal in the ABA group. The craving data did not follow this pattern, suggesting different mechanisms for craving and US expectancy. Similarities and differences between craving and US expectancy, as well as practical implications, are discussed.     

中国人限制性饮食和食物渴求的认知神经机制

物质丰富的时代, 如何抵御美味食物线索带来的食物渴求, 并限制饮食从而保持健康成为人们关注的重要话题之一。近年来, 国内学者为了探讨节食成功的原因, 创建中国食物图片库, 考察限制性饮食的认知神经机制, 以及成功和失败限制性饮食者的脑机制差异; 开展了特质食物渴求及中国特色的辣食渴求的认知神经研究。对推进饮食行为研究的理论发展, 也为肥胖、饮食失调等健康干预工作提供重要支持。     

Similarities between retrospective and actual anxiety states

The purpose of the study was to examine the fit and calibration of the items in Spielberger, Gorsuch, and Lushene's (1970) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory during measurement of actual and retrospective anxiety. Subjects in the actual anxiety situation (n = 113) and in the retrospective anxiety situation (n = 55) were administered the inventory, and 20 scale items were analyzed individually by the probabilistic Rasch Model (Wright & Masters, 1982). Comparisons between the items' values in both situations revealed that 17 of the 20 items were rated similarly. In the retrospective anxiety state, 9 items (misfits) failed to discriminate between high- and low-anxious subjects, but only 6 failed to do so in the actual anxiety state. Despite the similarities, we recommend that the scales be modified to yield a more reliable measure of anxiety and to discriminate more accurately among subjects with varying levels of anxiety.     

Selective inactivation of the ventral hippocampus attenuates cue-induced and cocaine-primed reinstatement of drug-seeking in rats

Recent evidence suggests that the hippocampus may have a functional role in mediating relapse to cocaine-seeking behavior. Based on the importance of the ventral CA subfields in mediating reward, the present experiment determined the effects of temporary inactivation of the ventral hippocampus on reinstatement of cocaine-seeking in a rodent model of relapse. Male, Sprague-Dawley rats self-administered i.v. cocaine (0.6 mg/kg/infusion) in the presence of discrete conditioned cues (tone+light) in daily 2-h sessions for ten days. Following seven days of extinction sessions in which neither cues nor drug were available, rats underwent four reinstatement tests in a counterbalanced, within-subjects design. Bilateral microinjections of GABA receptor agonists (baclofen/muscimol (B/M; 1.0 mM/0.1 mM) [corrected] into the ventral hippocampus significantly attenuated cue-induced and cocaine-primed reinstatement compared with vehicle microinjections in the same rats. In contrast, injections just outside the ventral hippocampus did not block either form of reinstatement. Furthermore, inactivation failed to affect responding for food reinforcement, baseline extinction responding, or locomotor activity. These data indicate that the ventral hippocampus plays an important role in the relapse to cocaine-seeking behavior and may interact with key limbic structures previously implicated in cocaine addiction.     

Teenagers' perceived and actual probabilities of pregnancy

This study sought to determine how teenagers' actual and perceived probabilities of pregnancy are related. Data were collected from interviews with 425 women aged nineteen or younger who attended the Door, a multiservice center for youth in New York City. Subjects were asked to estimate their likelihood of becoming pregnant the last time they had intercourse, and to indicate the dates of both last intercourse and last menstrual period in order to determine their objective and subjective assessments of risk of pregnancy. It was found that the perceived probability of pregnancy was not highly correlated with actual risk: the distributions of perceived probability of pregnancy were nearly identical for both those who were and were not at actual risk. Moreover, respondents' level of knowledge about the timing of ovulation was not significantly related to the accuracy of their risk assessment. The findings also indicate that teenagers' use of contraception is guided more by their perceived risk of pregnancy than by the actual risk. Policy implications are discussed.