How One Family Perceives Another: The Relationship Between Social Constructions and Problem-Solving Competence

This paper delineates a rarely studied but important family process: how a family perceives and understands the relationships in other families it knows. We hypothesize that these perceptions of other families are fundamental components of a family's shared construing of its social world. Families differ in how they perceive other families, specifically, and in their approach to construing or apprehending their social world, generally. We have hypothesized that these general differences also play a crucial role in shaping the style and competence of family problem-solving. A family's approach to any problem depends upon how it construes or interprets the social context of that problem. Using these general concepts of family life, we construct specific hypotheses linking family problem-solving and interfamily perception. We describe methods for measuring both family problem-solving and how a family perceives other families. Findings confirm our major hypothesis: A family that searches for underlying and subtle patterns in a problem-solving situation will develop a more differentiated and organized conception of other families.     

Families' Schemata of Social Relationships

Variation in views of the social environment held jointly by members of family units was examined from a theoretical perspective that specifies distinct kinds of variation among families in their beliefs about the fundamental nature of the social world. Associations compatible with theory were found between direct measures of family interaction and families' schemata of social relationships as assessed by using a felt figure technique. Additional evidence indicated that variation among families in the schemata displayed resulted from similar contributions by all individuals in a family studied. Findings support the existence of family social schemata — a family group's set of views about the organization of relationships in the social world — and indicate several dimensions by which these schemata vary from family to family.     

Family narrative interaction and children's sense of self

Family narratives about the shared past may be a particularly significant site for preadolescents' emerging sense of self both as an individual and as a member of a unified family. We examined the relations between family narrative interaction style when reminiscing and preadolescents' sense of self. Results indicated three narrative interaction styles that describe the extent to which families discuss or fail to discuss their past in integrated and validating ways. Specifically, conversations with a coordinated perspective incorporated information from all members and were related to higher self-esteem, especially in girls. Conversations with an individual perspective, in which family members took turns telling their thoughts and feelings about the event without integration among the perspectives, were associated with a more external locus of control, especially in boys. Conversations with an imposed perspective, in which one family member was in charge of the conversation or in which unpleasant exchanges between members occurred, were not associated with either self-esteem or locus of control. Implications of these narrative interaction styles for children's developing sense of self are discussed.     

Searching for a normal life: personal accounts of adults with schizophrenia, their parents and well-siblings

Using a life course perspective, the research examines personal accounts of adults with schizophrenia, and their parents and well-siblings from six families. Accounts of multiple members of the same family, including the family member with schizophrenia, are used to describe how families understand and accommodate life changes that result from the illness. Families describe the loss of a normal life as one of the most devastating aspects of schizophrenia. We present the personal and social losses described by adults with schizophrenia and their well family members, and document families' search for ways that their ill family member can achieve or maintain valued social roles. The concerns of well family members for the future of the ill family member and ways families contemplate transfer of care issues are described. Implications of the study for community research and action are discussed.     

When group membership gets personal: a theory of identity fusion

Identity fusion is a relatively unexplored form of alignment with groups that entails a visceral feeling of oneness with the group. This feeling is associated with unusually porous, highly permeable borders between the personal and social self. These porous borders encourage people to channel their personal agency into group behavior, raising the possibility that the personal and social self will combine synergistically to motivate pro-group behavior. Furthermore, the strong personal as well as social identities possessed by highly fused persons cause them to recognize other group members not merely as members of the group but also as unique individuals, prompting the development of strong relational as well as collective ties within the group. In local fusion, people develop relational ties to members of relatively small groups (e.g., families or work teams) with whom they have personal relationships. In extended fusion, people project relational ties onto relatively large collectives composed of many individuals with whom they may have no personal relationships. The research literature indicates that measures of fusion are exceptionally strong predictors of extreme pro-group behavior. Moreover, fusion effects are amplified by augmenting individual agency, either directly (by increasing physiological arousal) or indirectly (by activating personal or social identities). The effects of fusion on pro-group actions are mediated by perceptions of arousal and invulnerability. Possible causes of identity fusion--ranging from relatively distal, evolutionary, and cultural influences to more proximal, contextual influences--are discussed. Finally, implications and future directions are considered.     

Positive and negative affect in parenting disabled children

Research on parents' positive and negative affect may clarify critical aspects in the emotional impact of raising a child with disabilities, as related to stress-resistance factors such as personal coping and family climate. Parental affect (positive and negative), coping strategies (active and avoidant), and family climate (relationships, personal growth, and system maintenance) among 71 families with disabled children were compared (using MANCOVA) to parental measures of 77 families with nondisabled children, revealing significant differences. Parents of disabled children reported higher levels of negative (distressed) affect, adopted more avoidant coping strategies, and differed in their familial interrelations and the opportunities for personal growth available to them in their families. The discrepancies between the fathers' and mothers' scores in avoidant coping and in the family climate areas of personal growth and system maintenance were greater among the parents of disabled children than among the control parents. Positive and negative affect were differently predicted in the two groups of parents, highlighting the different role of coping resources and family resources in mediating stress. Implications were drawn for intervention planning and family empowerment.     

Family Capital,Children's Individual Attributes,and Academic Achievement

In this study, I examined relationships between family educational capital and measures of children's individual attributes and their academic achievement. Data were collected from 905 eleven-year-old Australian children (457 boys, 448 girls) and their parents. Families were classified into four opportunity structures defined conjointly by human capital and social capital. Within each opportunity structure, relationships among the variables were examined by investigating hierarchical regression models that included terms to test for possible linear, interaction, and curvilinear associations. The findings suggest that (a) within family opportunity structures defined by human and social capital, children's ability and cognitive attitudes and their family educational capital had modest to moderate associations with academic achievement and (b) there were family opportunity structure differences in the nature of the relationships among family educational capital, children's individual attributes, and their academic performance.     

Classification and validation of family climate subtypes in Kibbutz fathers of disabled and nondisabled children

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of disabled children on their fathers. Perceptions of family climate, sense of coherence, and satisfaction from family life were measured among 66 fathers of disabled children and among 74 fathers with nondisabled children in an Israeli kibbutz. The fathers of disabled children showed lower sense of coherence, derived less satisfaction from family life, and viewed their families as less encouraging of personal growth among family members. Four subtypes of family climate patterns, perceived by fathers of disabled children, were identified by cluster analysis and validated by the sense of coherence and global family satisfaction measures. Cluster analysis for the fathers of nondisabled children replicated the subtypes identified. The four subtypes were conceptualized as families with a (a) personal growth orientation, (b) conflict orientation, (c) conflict avoidance orientation, and (d) recreation avoidance orientation. Significant differences were found between the subtypes with regard to the family climate variables and satisfaction and coherence measures. Results demonstrated that different patterns of family climate characterized the two groups of fathers: In almost every cluster the measures of personal growth were lower for the fathers of disabled children.The authors would like to acknowledge the editorial assistance of Dee M. Bargteil.Special Education, Kibbutzim Movement, Tel Aviv, Israel 61400.     

Social support,psychological vulnerability,and HIV risk among African American men who have sex with men

Previous research has suggested a need to understand the social-psychological factors contributing to HIV risk among African American men who have sex with men (MSM). We conducted individual in-depth interviews with 34 adult African American MSM to examine their personal experiences about: (i) sources of social support, (ii) psychological responses to the presence or absence of social support and (iii) influences of social support on sexual behaviours. The majority of participants described limited positive encouragement and lack of emotional support from family, as well as few meaningful personal relationships. Feelings of isolation and mistrust about personal relationships led many participants to avoid emotional intimacy and seek physical intimacy through sexual encounters. Findings highlight a need for multilevel interventions that enhance social support networks and address the social-psychological, emotional and interpersonal factors that contribute to HIV risk among African American MSM.     

The nature of environmental influences on weight and obesity: a behavior genetic analysis.

The nature of environmental influences on individual differences in weight and obesity is presently unclear. To resolve this issue, behavior genetic studies are reviewed for their relevance to environmental influences on weight and obesity. Results are consistent in suggesting that environmental experiences are important for weight and obesity, although they account for much less variation than do the effects of genes. Furthermore, only environmental experiences that are not shared among family members appear to be important. In contrast, experiences that are shared among family members appear largely irrelevant in determining individual differences in weight and obesity. These conclusions are consistent with a growing body of evidence on the relative unimportance of such shared experiences for many psychological characteristics.     

Validating the Relationship Qualities of Influence and Persuasion With the Family Social Relations Model

Influence and persuasion are related, fundamental constructs in interpersonal communication. Both display the relationship qualities of interdependence, bidirectionality, reciprocity, and multiple levels of analysis. Yet, empirical validation of these relationship qualities is lacking, largely due to an absence of appropriate methods and statistical procedures. This article uses the family social relations model (SRM) to test for the personal relationship qualities of influence and persuasion in the family decision‐making context of buying a new car. New relationship measures of influence and persuasion were developed because, historically, measures have been at the individual level. The sample size of 110 families proved sufficient for stable parameter estimates. The results uncovered patterns in the relationship qualities of influence and persuasion across 3 decisions families make when buying a new car (i.e., how much to spend, car model choice, final decision). The findings confirm that both influence and persuasion are truly relational. The novel use of the model across decisions allowed the patterns of relationships among family members to be compared, and demonstrated the importance of the relationship qualities of influence and persuasion in decision making. Predictions were examined across decisions as well so as to check the consistency of hypotheses. The results provide further insight into the meaning of influence and persuasion, and of SRM terms.     

Varieties of Consensual Experience

This report is one in a continuing series concerning the relationship of family interaction and individual thinking ( 24 - 27 ). On the basis of previous experiments in this series, we have begun to elaborate a theory concerning the family's shared, consensual experience of its environment. This paper will outline the theory and demonstrate how it can generate a set of predictive hypotheses. The theory of consensua experience has been developed to explain ways in which individuals employ their cognitive and perceptual resources in intimate relationships with others and to account for the ways in which these intimate relationships alter and mold cognition and perception.     

A constructive alternative to family assessment

This article discusses George Kelly's theory of personal constructs and its Repertory Grid technique as a means of assessing couples and families. Kelly postulated that groups of people, such as couples and families, are best understood in terms of their system of personal constructs; these are the lenses through which they view their world. The paper shows how Kelly's Repertory Grid can be tailored to elicit and assess a couple's and/or family's individual and shared constructs.     

Personal and intergenerational narratives in relation to adolescents' well-being

Narratives of the self are embedded within families in which narrative interaction is a common practice. Especially in adolescence, when issues of identity and emotional regulation become key, narratives provide frameworks for understating self and emotion. The authors' research on family narratives suggests that adolescents' personal narratives are at least partly shaped by intergenerational narratives about their parents' childhoods. Both personal and intergenerational narratives emerge frequently in typical family dinner conversations, and these narratives reflect gendered ways of being in the world. Adolescents who tell intergenerational narratives that are rich in intergenerational connections and perspective-taking show higher levels of well-being. These findings suggest that individual narrative selves are created within families and across generations.     

A Piagetian View of Family Therapy: Selvini-Palazzoli and the Invariant Approach

The Invariant Approach of Mara Selvini-Palazzoli is a new development in the Milan approach to family therapy. In order to distinguish and explain it, an overview of the Invariant Approach is given. Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is used to provide a framework for explaining how Selvini-Palazzoli's therapy alters the family's epistemology and facilitates change in the "family game." It is suggested that family members in therapy tend to think about their problems in a style that resembles Piaget's preoperational period. The process of therapy can be seen as geared to facilitate a shift from a preoperational to an operational style of cognitive functioning. This shift gives family members access to more adaptive ways of thinking about their problem-solving strategies.     

Perceived Intrafamilial Connectedness and Autonomy in Families With and Without an Anxious Family Member: A Multiple Informant Approach

Perceived intrafamilial “emotional connectedness” and “autonomy” were investigated within families with and without an anxious family member using a multiple informant approach. The sample consisted of 32 mothers with a current anxiety disorder and 56 controls, their partners, and their anxious and nonanxious teenage children. No differences were found with respect to the perceived family relationships of family members with versus without anxious mothers. However, compared with nonanxious adolescents, anxious adolescents perceived less autonomy in relation to both parents. Mothers of anxious adolescents also perceived their children to be less autonomous toward them and their partners, than mothers of nonanxious adolescents. In contrast with “autonomy,” “emotional connectedness” was not reported to be different between families with and without an anxious adolescent. Agreement among family members and the importance of perceived individual autonomy in the development of anxiety are discussed.     

Stress and family health

This study investigates the difference between perceived everyday individual stress and levels of family health. Subjects completed the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale (FACES III), the Derogatis Stress Profile, and a personal data form. Quota sampling of 121 subjects was used to obtain 25 subjects in each of three groups: balanced, mid-range, and extreme family types. Individuals identified as members of mid-range families reported less overall stress than balanced or extreme family members. Significant differences appeared between the balanced and mid-range groups. Balanced individual family members reported slightly higher levels of stress than extreme family members.     

Interpersonal problem-solving ability and sociometric status in elementary school children

The relationships among a measure of problem-solving ability, school grade level, and interpersonal functioning as assessed by sociometric measures were investigated. Previous research has shown these relationships to be significant but the reliability and validity of the problem-solving measures used have been seriously questioned. This study attempted to replicate previous findings while using a reliable and valid measure of interpersonal problem solving. Two sociometric measures were administered to 463 second-, fourth-, and sixth-graders from which 179 pupils were sociometrically identified as populars, rejecteds, neglecteds, and controversials. These subjects were subsequently administered the Purdue Elementary Problem Solving Inventory. Dunn's multiple comparison procedure was used to analyze the existing relationships among grade levels and among sociometric categories. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in interpersonal problem-solving ability among grade levels but no significant differences were found among sociometric categories. The implications of the findings for social skills training are discussed.     

Family Climate and Identity Style During Late Adolescence

This study explored the association between family environment, parent-adolescent relationships, and identity style in late adolescence. A sample of 351 first year students at the University of Guelph completed a survey in 1994. A modest association was found between family environment and identity style. Adolescents from cohesive families tended to have normative identity styles and adolescents from expressive families were less likely to have diffuse/avoidant identity styles. Parent-adolescent relationships were not associated with identity style. These findings provide partial support for the theory that family relationships are an important predictor of individual differences in identity style during adolescence.     

Social networks in borderline personality disorder

The interpersonal dysfunction that characterizes borderline personality disorder (BPD) has generally been studied using broad global measures, leading to a lack of precision. We report on a novel methodology using social network analysis (SNA) to quantify interactions with others in the patient's social world. We assessed the social networks of 22 clinical patients, diagnosed with either BPD (N = 11) or no personality disorder (No PD; N = 11). The social networks of patients with BPD contained a greater number of former romantic partners, and a greater number of relationships that had been terminated. Mixed model analyses found that the No PD group reported higher levels of positive relationships (e.g., trust, social support) with more central members of their social networks, whereas the BPD group did not discriminate among members of their networks. Results suggest deficits in social cognition for positive relations, but not for negative relations such as interpersonal conflict.