Promoting Sikhi among Malaysian youth: A case study of the Sikh Naujawan Sabha Malaysia (SNSM)

ABSTRACT

The Sikh Naujawan Sabha Malaysia (SNSM) has been an important vehicle in keeping the tenets of the Sikh faith alive for the Malaysian Sikh community. It is primarily a Sikh youth organization, initiated with the blessings of the Malaysian Sikh community elders in the 1960s, who decided that starting the activity of prayer and contemplation on Sikhi was crucial from a young age. Over the decades, the SNSM has been adept in evolving its activities and organization to cater to the altering needs and self-conceptions of the various generations of Sikh youth. This paper documents the trajectory of SNSM activities and reinvention to cater to the generations of Sikhs post-Independence.     

PAKISTAN AND SIKH NATIONALISM: STATE POLICY AND PRIVATE PERCEPTIONS

The paper will examine Pakistan policies and perceptions of Sikh nationalism in the period from 1947 until the present day. The policies, it will be argued, have been opportunistic rather than strategic and have embraced both covert support for militancy against the Indian state in the 1980s and the attempt to use Sikhs and East Punjab as a bridge between Pakistan and India in the post-2001 period of composite dialogue. Private perceptions will be explored first through the accounts of partition survivors. They contain a typical mixture of romanticized views of Muslim–Sikh rural harmony before 1947 and of the Sikhs as an aggressive ‘Other’ in the ‘War of Religions’ at the time of the massacres and mass migrations. Their official counterpart is the attempt to ‘blame’ Sikhs for the violence and to understand the attacks in East Punjab as part of a Sikh Plan of ethnic cleansing. Secondly, private perceptions will be examined in terms of accounts written at the time of the 1980s Punjab crisis. These Pakistani works support the view of Sikhs as an ‘aggrieved minority’. Sympathy for Sikh nationalist struggle stops short of overt support for the militants in such texts. They frequently indulge, however, in attacks on the ‘Brahminical’ hegemony within India, thus echoing Sikh ethno-nationalist writings. Contemporary writings are suffused with romanticist imaginings of the Punjab, bringing harmony to the region in which the ‘love’ aspect of the love/hate relationship between Punjabi Muslims and Sikhs is emphasized. The extent to which the two Punjabs have drifted away from each other since partition is seldom acknowledged; nor the history of competing Muslim and Sikh nationalisms in the region.     

‘Second generation’ Sikh autobiographies and authobiographical novels in European languages: Turning towards and away from traditions

ABSTRACT

The article analyzes autobiographies and autobiographical novels by Sikh authors who were born and grew up in Europe and North America as sources for understanding developments of Sikh religion. It uses the concepts panjabiat (Punjabi-ness), Sikh religion and modernity/Western society to understand the tensions and conflicts described in these books. The authors had to work out the differences between panjabiat, Sikh religion and modernity/Western society. They had to figure out what place the Sikh religion should have in their new identity and for this they were looking for similarities between the Sikh religion and Western society. In the autobiographies Sikh religion emerges as an ideology employed to criticize Punjabi culture and society and Sikh religion is reinterpreted and often comes to refer to some general principles that are compatible and supportive of Western modernity.     

Desire,patriotism, and Sikh subjectivity

Post-9/11 era is marked by the resurgence of white American nationalisms across the country. Members of Arab, Muslim, Sikh, and South Asian communities experienced hate crimes, anti-immigrant sentiments, and government surveillance due to suspicions of being ‘terrorist-monsters’. Since 2001, Sikh advocacy groups participated in the nationalist discourse to express their desire for legitimacy as national subjects while distancing themselves from the ‘terrorist-other’. This article explores the politics embedded within the thrusts of these desires. I examine the disciplining nature of these groups and the possible ways they homogenize and foreclose Sikh subjectivities through a rather violent love for the nation.     

From Muslim punks to taqwacore: an incomplete history of punk Islam

This article is an attempt to provide a very rough outline of the historical interaction between punk rock and the Muslim world. For the most part, the antinomian youth culture of punk rock was relatively slow to reach Muslims outside of Europe and North America. When it did reach Muslim youth (from Europe to Asia to the Middle East), it tended to initially manifest in secular and antireligious terms. Yet by the 1990s, some examples of punk arose that claimed a Muslim identity, and by the year 2005, a scene called ??taqwacore?? developed. This new scene embraced both religious and nonreligious Muslim punks and others who did not self-identify as Muslim in any way. It??s been called ??punk Islam?? and has made a place for itself on the fringes of the punk scene and the Muslim world. Finally, this article briefly addresses some ways in which taqwacore can be seen as a theological development within Islam.     

Trauma,cultural survival and identity politics in a post-9/11 era: Reflections by Sikh youth

This article presents findings from an ethnographic study of Sikh immigrant communities after 9/11. Notions of ‘belonging’ and ‘home’ are deeply fragmented for the Sikh families, especially the youth, and these complex social processes are explored. The post 9/11 backlash was pivotal in this community as it created more barriers for the youth in their schools as they became victims of racist slurs, threats and physical assault that were treated with apathy from teachers and administrators. Students stopped going to school, changed their physical appearances, displayed ‘patriotic’ American sentiment to promote an appearance of belonging, became depressed and were even suicidal as a result of the 9/11 backlash. The sense of persecution and of being labeled ‘suspect’ in the eyes of the public was detrimental to the families and the ensuing ‘fear’ for their safety in public spaces provoked many violent memories from India that these families experienced during the Hindu–Sikh riots from 1984 to the mid-1990s. The role of memory and the diasporic imaginary of Khalistan in the Sikh diaspora are understood throughout the article, as well. The findings of the study reveal immeasurable hardships for the Sikh youth in their schools and challenge assumptions about immigrant rigor and the resilience of immigrant youth in the face of hostile experiences and interactions. These hardships that stemmed from the trauma of migration and downward social mobility, the 9/11 backlash and their struggle to find a place led to challenges in identity formation and preservation.     

THE FIVE SYMBOLS OF SIKHISM

The paper addresses three contemporary issues pertaining to the five Sikh symbols known as the Five Ks, specifically the decline in their observance in the Sikh homeland, that is, the State of Punjab in India; the difficulties being experienced by Sikh immigrants in Europe and North America in preserving their formal identity; and the academic controversies over the genesis, meaning and significance of the Five Ks. The first brief section describes the scale at which the Sikh youth are abandoning the two main markers of their traditional identity – unshorn hair and the turban - and stresses the need for a deeper investigation of this phenomenon in the light of sociological theory and research. The second section exposes the problems that the baptized, or traditional, Sikhs face in preserving their identity and symbolism in North America and Europe. Although the discussion primarily references restrictions placed on the wearing of Sikh symbols in public schools in America and France, the problem is more general. It is suggested that the Sikhs need to non-violently resist discriminatory or exclusionary practices in western countries guided by the ethos of their own faith. The third and last section, which forms the main body of the essay, deals with academic controversies surrounding the origin and significance of the Sikh symbols. On the basis of close textual analysis, the paper critically examines a host of interpretations – commonsensical, mystical, cosmological, structural, empiricist, psychoanalytical and feminist – of the Five Ks, and presents conclusions. The Sikh symbols signify and affirm that the spiritual concerns of human beings cannot be separated from their temporal and material concerns.     

Four generations of Sikh studies: A personal view1

This perspective on the development of Sikh Studies over the twentieth century intersperses personal reminiscences from the past four decades with a chronological overview of the modern development of the subject. Beginning with an outline of some of the pioneering achievements of the great Singh Sabha scholars and of subsequent developments in the Punjab in the succeeding generations, it then discusses some of the tensions between traditional scholarship and the different emphases which have typically marked the work of western academics. While critical of some of the infighting which has characterized Sikh Studies in the West, it concludes with an overview of the exciting contemporary developments of the subject by young Sikh scholars working in North America and Britain (of which the appearance of Sikh Formations is itself such an encouraging sign), and with a plea for the urgent necessity of informed interfaith understandings.     

Social and political activism amongst British Sikhs: Responses to issues of equality and human rights – a new way forward?

ABSTRACT

This article discusses two key issues relating to activism amongst British Sikhs. The exploration focuses upon the mobilisation of Sikhs at rallies and protests surrounding human rights issues, as well as their overall objection to caste legislation in British Law. The revelations surrounding the British Government’s involvement in Operation Bluestar came as a huge shock not only to British Sikhs but also to Sikhs worldwide. This paper will discuss whether the British Sikh community has taken on a fresh approach when confronted with issues surrounding equality and human rights and will explore how youth led Sikh groups and organisations have responded to contemporary challenges by using Sikhi to encourage activism amongst British Sikhs.     

The Diverse Voices of Political Islam in Post-Suharto Indonesia

Since the resignation of Suharto as president of Indonesia in May 1998, the country has suffered from chronic instability on various fronts. Economic disruption resulting from the Asian economic crisis of 1997 continues. Food shortages have been widespread throughout the archipelago. Social instability has been rife, especially in densely populated areas where communities have had to compete for scarce resources. Inter-religious conflict has exploded, especially between Muslim and Christian communities, reflecting a common outcome of economic and social instability. This paper will focus upon Indonesia in the period May 1998-July 2001 and will draw upon wide-ranging print and electronic media reports as well as secondary scholarship. Particular attention will be devoted to the political stage and to the changing role of Islam in that context. We will consider the different voices being heard among the Muslim community, the key issues of debate that have preoccupied Muslim political leaders and the ingredients which have contributed to a surge in Muslim-Christian conflict in Indonesia during the period being examined.     

Sikh American millennials at work: Institution building,activism, and a renaissance of cultural expression

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the contributions of Sikh American millennials in institution building, activism, and cultural expression in the post 9/11 period. The discussion is based on interviews and fieldwork conducted by the author. I describe the motivations and concerns of Sikh American millennial activists. I also discuss the digital fluencies they apply in their fight against discrimination and violence. They value innovative leadership, civil rights, gender equality, social justice, and youth programs. I conclude that millennial institution building is shaping the community by expanding civil society engagement, promoting youth leadership, and highlighting social problems within the community like sexism and classism.     

Sikh millennials engaging the earth: Sikhi,environmental activism,and eco-enchantment

ABSTRACT

Diaspora Sikhs of and at the millennium are involved in a broad range of causes. This paper examines two Sikh environmental organizations: KarmaGrow and EcoSikh. Drawing from three previously unrelated strands of the Sikh and Punjabi studies literature (millennial Sikh identities in diaspora; engagements with land and landscape among Punjabis; and the influence of Sikh ethics), I explore the millennial diaspora environmentalisms of these cases. I argue that they challenge Weber's proposition that modern society is disenchanted, as well as Western notions of development, by re-engaging Punjabi ecological traditions, recuperating sacred geography and landscape, and uniting householding and stewardship.     

Work–family conflict and coping strategies: Qualitative study of Muslim female academicians in Malaysia

This study seeks to explore the relationship between work demands related to causes of work–family conflict (WFC) and coping strategies among Muslim female academicians. Five interviews were conducted with five respondents. Two issues were discussed: primary sources of WFC and coping mechanisms for WFC. The participants included five Muslim female lecturers, aged 43–45 years. Most interviewees experienced conflict between work demand and family life. They believe that these conflicts were reasons for decline in productivity, higher rates of absenteeism, higher turnover, lower morale, lower job satisfaction, and lower family satisfaction. To manage WFC, three coping strategies were used by respondents.     

Educated millennial Sikhs: Higher education,social mobility and identity formation among British Sikh youth

ABSTRACT

Large scale Sikh male migration to Britain in the 1950s gave way to family re-unions, leading to the development of vibrant Sikh communities across major cities and emergence of a millennial second and third generation Sikh youth. This chapter specifically identifies and evaluates higher education and labour market experiences of these millennial Sikhs. It argues mass participation in higher education produced differential outcomes, with a small upper segment becoming high achievers but a large bottom segment unable to realise the full potential. Further, these experiences had varied effects on their identity formation, with some moving away from their parental religion whilst others (re)embracing their tradition and adopting Sikh articles of faith. Finally, these differential experiences have also contributed to the widening of socio-economic differentiation within the British Sikh community as a whole and on potential for upward social mobility.     

Religious Freedom,Free Speech and Equality: Conflict or Cohesion?

There have recently been a number of high profile political incidents, and legal cases, that raise questions about hate speech. At the same time, the tensions, and perceived conflicts, between religion and sexuality have become controversial topics. This paper considers the relationship between religious freedom, free speech and equality through an analysis of recent case law in Great Britain, Canada and the United States. The paper starts with a discussion of how conflicts between these values arise in areas such as hate speech and explores the differences between the European and US approach to this issue. In Council of Europe member states there is an increasing use of the criminal law to regulate hate speech. This paper argues that criminalisation of hate speech poses a distinct risk to the values of free speech and proposes alternative non-legal responses such as a greater use of cultural policy. The paper also explores a range of cases where the religion and sexual orientation conflict has arisen in areas such as the workplace. An analysis of these cases suggests that although there is no perfect resolution of this issue, it is possible to develop a set of principles that encourage a balance between the values of religious freedom, free speech and equality even in difficult situations where there is a conflict between religion and sexuality. The paper concludes with some practical recommendations for managing the tensions or conflicts between religious freedom, free speech and equality in liberal democracies.     

VIOLENCE,MEMORY, AND THE DYNAMICS OF TRANSNATIONAL YOUTH FORMATIONS

This editorial introduces and contextualizes five scholarly papers on ‘Violence, Memory, and the Dynamics of Transnational Youth Formations.’ The topic of this special issue is conceptually organized around theories of postcolonial and diasporic citizenship and probes the extent to which these theories have shaped the discursive field of ‘youth formations’. We outline how an emerging scholarly field on youth cultures, youth activism and youth political organizations has responded to the new challenges of globalization and transnational mobilization. As experiences and memories of violence give shape to these mobilizations as well as the social imaginations characterizing youth movements, this special issue takes an interest in drawing connections between different youth formations. In establishing such a comparative lens, we contribute to ongoing discussions in Sikh Studies on youth issues in relation to violence, discrimination and transnational mobilization.     

MEMORY,INVISIBILITY, AND THE OAK CREEK GURDWARA MASSACRE

The racist terrorism experienced by Sikh, Muslim, Arab, and South Asian American communities after 9/11 has never abated, although it has disappeared from the nation's contemporary discourse and its memory of that traumatic time. The intensely stressful and personal violence still plaguing the Sikh American community makes farcical any discussion of a ‘post-racial’ society. The erasure of its experience during and since 9/11 is well illustrated and symbolized by the disappearance of Balbir Singh Sodhi from our national memory of the time. The national hate crime epidemic has been fed and sustained by white Christian Americans who demonize racialized non-Christians, sometimes in racialized terms. The hate crime wave against Sikh Americans has been largely ignored by the media since 9/11, preventing wider understanding of the ongoing problem, and ensuring Sikh Americans were still largely unknown to their fellow Americans when the Oak Creek massacre occurred. What images the media did offer of turbaned, bearded men after 9/11 exacerbated the situation, exemplifying the prototypical images of a terrorist already deeply embedded in the national psyche, as seen in the mistreatment of Sher Singh. The politics of racial division must end, and we must drive those who divide us from the public realm with demands for patriotic integrity.     

A SIKH PERSPECTIVE ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF PUNJABI-SIKH PATIENTS

This paper presents a Sikh perspective on the use of alcohol and drugs. In doing so, it takes into account the dichotomy that exists between Sikh ethical values and the Punjabi cultural attitude toward alcohol and drugs. It further discusses the Sikh perspective on treating substance-related disorders in the light of contemporary approaches to addiction, such as the bio-psychosocial model and the Alcoholics Anonymous twelve-step program. The paper concludes by highlighting the treatment issues that need to be taken into consideration when helping Punjabi-Sikh patients recover from alcohol or drug related addiction.     

Western Anti‐Muslim Prejudice: Value Conflict or Discrimination of Persons Too?

Do Western anti‐Muslim attitudes reflect Islamophobia as a general, ethnoreligious prejudice that does not distinguish between persons and ideas, values, or behavior, or are they limited to issues perceived to be in conflict with Western liberal values? In two experiments, we measured discrimination as decreased willingness to help a Muslim versus non‐Muslim to undertake an action that was either neutral or possibly in conflict with Western liberal values. As opposed to general discrimination, the participants displayed conditional, anti‐Muslim discrimination: The two targets were treated equally when the cause was neutral, but there was less willingness to help the Muslim when the cause was conflicting (protesting against the headscarf ban and against gay rights). However, participants did demonstrate subtle discrimination by showing less willingness to help the protesting Muslim compared to the protesting non‐Muslim target. Individual differences moderated these effects with multiculturalism predicting conditional outgroup prosociality, ethnocentrism predicting global outgroup discrimination, and proatheism attitudes predicting both conditional outgroup prosociality and unprejudiced rejection of value‐conflicting behavior.     

AT HOME IN MOTION

This paper was first delivered as the keynote address at the ‘Transnational Punjabis in the 21^st Century: Beginnings, Junctures and Responses’ Conference held in May 2011 at the University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada. It argues that there are two dimensions to evolving Sikh diasporic identities that are firmly anchored in being at home whilst in motion. These two dimensions are rooted in culture and dharam. The ways in which Sikh culture travels and evolves is illustrative of post-colonial transformations and largely dependent on the host culture as well as the product of being part of either an ‘old’ or ‘new’ diaspora – that is, being a diaspora that has been forged in either the age of colonization or the age of globalization. While it remains to be seen how a Sikh diasporic identity will be shaped in the future, it is apparent that diasporic processes will be played out on a global stage as communications between Sikhs and others throughout the world are further revolutionized.