Effects of coping skills training on generalized self-efficacy and locus of control

A number of studies have shown that mastery experiences strengthen self-efficacy expectancies that are specific to the mastery situation. In this study I assessed the effects of cognitive-behavioral coping skills training on generalized expectancies concerning self-efficacy and locus of control in test-anxious college students. Compared with a waiting-list control group, the trained subjects exhibited significant decreases on trait and state measures of test anxiety and a higher level of academic performance on classroom tests, as well as changes in specific self-efficacy expectancies relating to test-anxiety management and academic performance. Consistent with generalization predictions derived from self-efficacy theory, the coping skills group also exhibited decreases in general trait anxiety and increased scores on a trait measure of generalized self-efficacy. Locus of control was unaffected by the program, and changes in general self-efficacy were unrelated to changes in locus of control, suggesting the possibility that different parameters of experience are related to changes in the two types of generalized expectancies.     

希望和乐观——两种未来指向的积极预期

在积极心理学中,希望和乐观虽然存在很大程度的概念重叠,但二者本质上是不同的概念。希望的概念核心是以目标为中心的动力思维和路径思维,乐观的概念核心是指向未来的积极预期。作为两种指向未来的积极预期,希望和乐观属于人格特质的范畴,共同成分是对目标的信念;二者的差异性在于对未来预期的方式和对预期事件的个人控制。相关研究发现,相对于乐观,希望通常是主观幸福感和学业成就更好的预测指标。未来研究应明确希望和乐观的整合,验证是否存在控制点的调节作用,并开展跨文化研究。     

The use of structured learning therapy and transfer programming with disruptive adolescents in a school setting

In behavior change literature, little attention has been paid to the systematic study of variables affecting transfer of training. The present study employed a skill-training method known as Structured Learning Therapy (SLT) for the dual purpose of testing the effectiveness of this method and to identify variables that will promote transfer of training. Forty-three disruptive male adolescents were assigned to three experimental and two control conditions. One experimental group received SLT plus an additional transfer-enhancing procedure referred to as Transfer Programming (TP) which consisted of in vivo practice of treatment gains and peer reinforcement. Another group received only SLT, and a third group received only TP. One control group received only brief instructions pertaining to the nature of the skill, while the second group served as an attention control. Consistent with predictions, the results were that the two groups receiving the SLT performed significantly better than the three groups not receiving SLT on all dependent measures at posttest. These differences generally maintained at follow-up. Contrary to expectations, the implementation of TP did not prove to promote transfer of training beyond that found with SLT alone.     

Locus of control: a work-related variable?

Inconsistencies in findings between age and perceived locus of control of reinforcement were examined in light of social learning theory. Absence of work was hypothesized to reduce opportunities for reinforcement and thus expectancies. No differences were found in internal-external (I-E) locus of control among nine age groups (20 to 65 years) for subjects (882 school teachers) during the span of their work lives. It seems that I-E depends on the frequency and intensity of expectancies for behavior reinforcement sequences that work affords. Before and after work life there is not only less to control, but many of the nonwork reinforcers are not contingent on one's own behavior. Relinquishing internal control and a shift of focus toward reflection on experience and meaning of ife may well be a desirable and natural process for older people.     

What you expect is not always what you get: The roles of extremity, optimism, and pessimism in the behavioral confirmation process

Do pessimists and optimists elicit the very behavior they expect from others? What if their expectations are fairly extreme? Using a simulated job interview paradigm, evidence was found for behavioral confirmation of generalized future-event expectancies (optimism/pessimism) and for the moderating role of extremity. Interviewers with nonextreme expectancies gathered information in an expectancy-biased fashion and elicited expectancy-confirming behavior from applicants. However, as interviewer expectancies became more extreme, these effects were attenuated. Further evidence suggested that extremity is associated with effortful correction processes and awareness of bias. Interestingly, pessimistic applicants were more strongly influenced by interviewers’ expectancies than were optimistic applicants. The current study extends research on the social-cognitive consequences of generalized future-event expectancies and extremity to the behavioral domain.     

Generalized and specific expectancies: Sequential mediators of interpersonal behavior1

Two experiments confirmed sequential mediation of social interaction by investigating the effects of generalized expectancies on specific expectancies and the effects of specific expectancies on performance. Both experiments used a simulated tutoring task in which the subject took the role of tutor while a confederate took the role of student. In Experiment 1 subjects combined generalized expectancies about the effectiveness of certain tutoring responses with specific situational information to produce specific expectancies about the results of the tutoring responses under the experimental circumstances. Experiment 2 replicated this finding and showed that specific expectancies of the relative effectiveness of different responses influenced which response was performed more. Results were discussed in terms of cognitive motivation theory and social learning theory.     

Multidimensional Locus of Control in Prison Inmates1

This study examined public offenders' generalized expectancies of control as they relate to length of time in prison and behavior within the institution, in order to demonstrate the usefulness of a multidimensional modification of Rotter's locus of control scale with a prison sample. Inmates (N= 145) serving sentences in a large, state prison responded to three locus of control scales designed to measure separately expectancies of internality, of control by powerful others, and of control by chance forces. It was reasoned that if the separation of control into these three orientations is meaningful, then changes in perceptions of control by powerful others should be particularly relevant to the prison experience. As predicted, scores on the Powerful Others scale were significantly related to length of time in prison and number of times punished by solitary confinement.     

Personal efficacy, external locus of control, and perceived contingency of parental reinforcement among depressed, paranoid, and normal subjects

Bandura (1982) suggested that judgments of personal efficacy and outcome expectancies (i.e., locus of control) jointly affect behavior. We hypothesized that different combinations of these two sets of beliefs would characterize the thought structures of normal subjects and of psychiatric patients suffering from distinctly different disorders. Normal subjects, depressed subjects, and paranoid subjects completed scales with which we measured beliefs in personal efficacy and beliefs that outcomes are controlled either by chance or by powerful others, as well as a scale with which we assessed perceived contingency of parental reinforcement. The major findings were as follows: Normals judged themselves to be more efficacious than did psychiatric subjects; whereas depressives expected outcomes to be controlled by chance, paranoids expected outcomes to be under the control of powerful others; among the normals, outcome expectancies were strongly associated with personal efficacy, but among the psychiatric patients, these beliefs were unrelated; depressives and paranoids equally reported more noncontingent parental reinforcement than did normals; and perceived contingency of parental reinforcement was predictive of outcome expectancies but not of personal efficacy. The data suggest that low personal efficacy may be a distinguishing characteristic of all psychiatric patients, whereas outcome expectancies may determine the specific nature of the psychiatric disorder.     

Development of the Mental Health Locus of Control and Mental Health Locus of Origin Scales

The Mental Health Locus of Control (MHLC) Scale is an area-specific measure of locus of control expectancies designed to predict mental health related behaviors, particularly those occurring in treatment situations. The discriminant validity of the MHLC, in contrast with Rotter's 1-E measure of generalized expectancies, was demonstrated with two mental health related variables: beliefs concerning etiology of psychopathology, and information about abnormal psychology. Beliefs about etiology were measured by the Mental Health Locus of Origin (MHLO) Scale. The primary hypothesis, that individuals with 'endogenous' beliefs about etiology tend to have 'external' expectations for the client's role in treatment, was supported by a statistically significant (p < .001) correlation between the MHLC and MHLO Scales.     

Driving locus of control and driving behaviors: Inducing change through driver training

Locus of control perceptions have been used to predict driving safety as a stable, dispositional variable. Based on social learning theory, this study tested whether a defensive driving training program coupled with observer feedback could influence domain-specific locus of control beliefs regarding controllability of accidents and therefore impact driving behaviors. Over a 5-week period, 112 individuals’ driving locus of control and driving behaviors were assessed two times, before and after a defensive driving training program and observer feedback. Drivers experienced significant changes in their driving locus of control perceptions. Specifically, drivers reported significantly lower externality and higher internality after training as compared to before training. The changes in driving locus of control predicted an increase in safe driving behaviors. In addition, pretraining motivation to learn predicted a decrease in externality, whereas pretraining self-efficacy predicted the increase in internality. The results indicate that driving locus of control can be influenced by training and observer feedback, and the changes in driving locus of control can predict change in driving behaviors. Findings of the study point to the potential for organizations to enhance driving safety by influencing drivers’ locus of control perceptions.     

The Interrelationships of Some General and Specific Preferences

Summary

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relation of generalized and specific expectancies to actual academic performance. Thirty-five female and 28 male fifth and sixth graders completed Nowicki-Strickland locus of control scales and Rotter Level of Aspiration Board procedures. Results indicated that those who perceived themselves to be internally controlled or those who used immediate experience on the Rotter board to form accurate expectancies of future performance on this board achieved more than their counterparts. These results were taken as supportive of conceptualizing achievement in expectancy terms.     

The Influence of Outcome Expectancy and Self-Efficacy on the Behavioral Intentions of Novice Exercisers

The present study was based upon self-efficacy (SE) theory (Bandura, 1986). Its purpose was to examine whether incentives, defined as the product of outcome expectancy and outcome value, would help to predict the behavioral intentions of novice exercisers when coupled with SE expectations for a specific form of exercise. Fifty- three volunteers who were novices at weight training for exercise, participated in a 2-day learn-to-weight-train clinic offered at a university. They completed pre- and postclinic measures of SE for weight training, expectancy-value ratings of outcomes primary and secondary to 1 month's weight-training participation, and a strength- of-intention measure of multiple actions consequent to clinic participation. Results indicated that primary physical health outcomes expected of postclinic participation independently predicted the variability in pre- and postclinic future intentions beyond the variance predicted by SE. Further, incentives and SE clearly discriminated between individuals extreme in the strength of their intentions at pre- and postclinic. Discussion concerns the inclusion of measures of incentive in studies using self-efficacy theory in order to examine individuals who begin exercise and then move through various decision stages about exercise adoption and maintenance. Rather than merely assuming the influence of incentives necessary and sufficient to encourage a cognitive or behavioral impact of efficacy, arguments are made for actively examining incentive as manifested through outcome expectations.     

Yes,we can: physical activity and group identification among healthy adults

Drawing on social identity theory and social cognitive theory, this research was designed to investigate the role played by group identification, self‐efficacy and outcome expectations in physical activity behavior. Healthy adult participants (N = 130) who identified strongly with an exercise referent group reported higher levels of physical activity, and this relationship was mediated by self‐efficacy and outcome expectations. This study adds to the existing literature on the effects of social groups on health and is one of the first to examine the interplay of personal factors and group membership on physical activity.     

Effects of differential reinforcement on the behavior and self-esteem of children with emotional and behavioral disorders

Students in a residential special school for children with emotional and behavioral disorders participated in a study designed to reduce their levels of inappropriate behavior. The residential care staff rated the students' behavioral problems and their class teachers rated their overt self-esteem pre and post intervention. In addition, the students completed self-ratings of their self-esteem. The students were divided into two groups, experimental and control. A multiple baseline across behaviors design was used to assess behavioral changes in the experimental group. Both groups received tangible rewards to the same level but only the experimental group received them contingent upon behaving appropriately. Results showed that the experimental group students made substantial reductions in their levels of inappropriate behavior, which were maintained at a three-month followup. Also, ratings of their behavioral problems by residential child care staff suggested that this improvement in behavior had generalized beyond the classroom to the residential setting. However, no significant differences were found between the pre- and post-intervention ratings of their self-esteem or teacher ratings of their overt self-esteem.     

Fostering networking behavior,career planning and optimism,and subjective career success: An intervention study

The present study evaluated personal resource-oriented interventions supporting the career development of young academics, working at German universities within the STEM fields. The study sought to foster subjective career success by improving networking behavior, career planning, and career optimism. The study involved a quasi-experimental pre-post intervention with two intervention and two control groups (N = 81 research associates). Participants of the first intervention group received networking training; participants of the second intervention group received the same networking training plus individual career coaching. Participants of both intervention groups were female. Participants of the control groups (i.e., male vs. female group) did not participate in any intervention. As expected, path analyses, based on mean differences from pre-test to post-test, revealed an increase in career planning and career optimism within the networking plus career coaching intervention group, that was indirectly positively related to changes in subjective career success. Contrary to our expectations, the networking group training alone and in combination with the career coaching showed no effectiveness in fostering networking behavior. Results are discussed in the context of career counseling and intervention effectiveness studies.     

Training with anxiety: short- and long-term effects on police officers’ shooting behavior under pressure

We investigated short- and long-term effects of training with anxiety on police officers’ shooting behavior under pressure. Using a pretest, posttest, and retention test design, 27 police officers executed a shooting exercise against an opponent that did (high anxiety) or did not (low anxiety) shoot back using colored soap cartridges. During the training sessions, the experimental group practiced with anxiety and the control group practiced without anxiety. At the pretest, anxiety had a negative effect on shot accuracy for both groups. At the posttest, shot accuracy of the experimental group no longer deteriorated under anxiety, while shot accuracy of the control group was still equally affected. At the retention test, 4 months after training, positive results for the experimental group remained present, indicating that training with anxiety may have positive short- and long-term effects on police officers’ shot accuracy under pressure. Additional analyses showed that these effects are potentially related to changes in visual attention on task-relevant information.     

Improving aerobic capacity in healthy older adults does not necessarily lead to improved cognitive performance

The effects of aerobic exercise training in a sample of 85 older adults were investigated. Ss were assigned randomly to either an aerobic exercise group, a nonaerobic exercise (yoga) group, or a waiting-list control group. Following 16 weeks of the group-specific protocol, all of the older Ss received 16 weeks of aerobic exercise training. The older adults demonstrated a significant increase in aerobic capacity (cardiorespiratory fitness). Performance on reaction-time tests of attention and memory retrieval was slower for the older adults than for a comparison group of 24 young adults, and there was no improvement in the older adults' performance on these tests as a function of aerobic exercise training. Results suggest that exercise-related changes in older adults' cognitive performance are due either to extended periods of training or to cohort differences between physically active and sedentary individuals.     

Cognitive processes mediating behavioral change.

The present experiment was designed to test the theory that psychological procedures achieve changes in behavior by altering the level and strength of self-efficacy. In this formulation, perceived self-efficacy. In this formulation, perceived self-efficacy influences level of performance by enhancing intensity and persistence of effort. Adult phobics were administered treatments based upon either performance mastery experiences, vicarious experiences., or they received no treatment. Their efficacy expectations and approach behavior toward threats differing on a similarity dimension were measured before and after treatment. In accord with our prediction, the mastery-based treatment produced higher, stronger, and more generalized expectations of personal efficacy than did the treatment relying solely upon vicarious experiences. Results of a microanalysis further confirm the hypothesized relationship between self-efficacy and behavioral change. Self-efficacy was a uniformly accurate predictor of performance on tasks of varying difficulty with different threats regardless of whether the changes in self-efficacy were produced through enactive mastery or by vicarious experience alone.     

Exercise, changes in aerobic capacity, and changes in self-perceptions: An experimental investigation

Subjects in an exercise training condition participated in a 10-week aerobic exercise class, whereas subjects in waiting-list control and independent control conditions did not. The results indicated that subjects in the training condition evidenced reliably greater improvements in physical fitness (aerobic capacity) and reported reliably greater improvements in their abilities and confidence in both the physical area (e.g., ability to run distances) and nonphysical area (e.g., frustration tolerance) than did subjects in the control conditions. On the other hand, improvements in physical fitness were not related to reported improvements in abilities and confidence. These findings are of interest because they indicate that some of the important personal changes that are associated with physical fitness training are not due to changes in fitness, but appear to be due to other factors (e.g., group participation and expectancies).