PASS认知过程:能够解释RAN-阅读之间的关系吗?(英文)

本研究考察了计划、注意、同时性加工和继时性加工这些PASS认知技能,在多大程度上能够预测快速命名和单词阅读之间的共同变异量。84位说英语读三年级和四年级的加拿大儿童,接受了客体和颜色快速命名、单词确认、计划、注意、同时性加工和继时性加工任务的测量。结果表明,计划和继时性加工能够对快速命名和阅读之间的共同变异量做出显著的解释。这一结果表明,在探寻快速阅读与阅读密切关联的原因时,应充分考虑这两个认知过程。     

Correlates of Canadian native children's reading performance: From cognitive styles to cognitive processes

Individual differences in reading and cognitive processing among a sample of generally poor readers were studied in order to answer two major questions: Do they have a specific cognitive style that favors global-simultaneous strategies and a weak sequential strategy? If they do not have a distinct cognitive style or strategy, but are merely poor in using sequential (Successive) strategies, then, would the same processes that influence reading performance in the general population determine their performance as well? A sample of 84 Canadian First Nations (FN) children were assessed in word and pseudoword reading, rapid naming speed, and ability to process information using the Planning, Attention, Successive, and Simultaneous (PASS) theory of intelligence. Results confirmed that this sample of children did not exhibit a specific cognitive style. Rather, there was evidence of a weakness in Successive processing only in the subgroup of poor readers. The importance of understanding the role of Successive processing and rapid naming speed relative to reading is further discussed.     

Comparison of Cognitive Process Measures Across Three Cultural Samples: Some Surprises

Investigations of cognitive processes of children in three different countries (India, Canada, & Japan) are reported extending the validity of measures of Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) processing. Results of average and low achieving school children in India on Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) comprising the four PASS scales showed that low achievers are low on all processing measures. Among Canadian Native children, Simultaneous processing was stronger and Successive was poorer. Children’s performance on Japanese standardization of CAS revealed the same 4 PASS factor structures as in the American CAS. However, in each case, there was a surprise: Indian children scored higher than American norm for Successive scale; only those Canadian Native children who were poor in reading performed poorly in Successive scale, and among the Japanese, Simultaneous processing was higher. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of cultural context and school instructions.     

Perception of temporally competing speech stimuli in preschool children

The aim of this study was to investigate the perception of competing speech stimuli in 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old normally developing children. A dichotic listening paradigm was used in which the temporal alignment between the two stimuli was varied to represent three levels of competition. Minimal, moderate, and maximal levels of temporal competition were represented by a Separation, Lag, and Simultaneous test condition, respectively. The subjects were behaviorally set to listen for and to report the two stimuli on each trial. The incidence of double correct responses in the test conditions was the measure of interest. The results show a sharp and linear drop in double correct scores from the Separation, to the Lag, and to the Simultaneous condition. There were no age-related differences in the Separation and the Simultaneous conditions. In the Lag condition, the performance of the 3-year-olds was significantly lower than the 4- and 5-year-olds. The findings were interpreted to be indicative of limited auditory processing ability in preschoolers for moderately and maximally competing speech stimuli.     

不熟练汉英双语儿童翻译加工的特点

本研究使用单词翻译、图片命名和单词命名任务探查了不熟练的小学三、五和初一年级汉英双语儿童前向翻译和后向翻译的内在过程,结果发现,(1)各组被试命名图片和单词的语言效应显著,用第二语言命名图片和单词的反应时显著长于用第一语言命名图片和单词的反应时;(2)各组被试在前向翻译的反应时显著长于后向翻译,随着第二语言熟练程度的提高,反应时的差异逐渐减小。对结果的分析表明,不熟练的汉英双语儿童在两个翻译方向的内在过程相同,都是概念中介的,但两个翻译方向的加工速度差异显著。     

Acquisition of arbitrary conditional discriminations by young normally developing children

Three experiments investigated conditions designed to facilitate acquisition of arbitrary conditional discriminations in 3- to 6-year-old normally developing children. In Experiment 1, 6 subjects failed to master the arbitrary match-to-sample task under conditions of differential reinforcement alone, but 7 subjects did so when instructions or instructions and sample naming were added. In Experiment 2, sample naming introduced in a blocked-trial arrangement resulted in acquisition, but only when the sample name was a nonsense syllable provided by the experimenter (5 of 7 subjects) and not when the sample name was generated by the subject (0 of 5 subjects). Experiment 3 demonstrated the effectiveness of a training sequence involving thematically related stimuli as an intermediate step facilitating the transition from identity to novel arbitrary relations. The difficulties in mastering arbitrary conditional discriminations shown here imply that further analyses with young children will be particularly important in efforts to investigate the development of theoretically important stimulus relations.     

Lexical retrieval in left and right brain lesioned children

Performance on two measures of lexical retrieval for 19 left and 13 right brain lesioned children was compared to that of control subjects matched by age, sex, race, and social class. On the Word-Finding Test, left lesioned subjects were significantly slower in response time than left controls when given semantic and visual cues and made more errors when given rhyming cues. On the Rapid Automatized Naming Test, left lesioned subjects were significantly slower than left controls in naming all semantic categories, including colors, numbers, objects, and letters. In contrast, right lesioned subjects responded as quickly as or more quickly than did right controls in all access conditions and in naming semantic categories yet tended to produce more errors than their controls, suggesting a speed-accuracy tradeoff. Children sustaining left brain lesions before 1 year of age appeared to be as impaired as those whose lesions occurred after 1 year of age. Diverse lesion sites within the left hemisphere were associated with increased lexical retrieval latencies.     

Separating global and specific factors in developmental dyslexia

The general goal of the study was to identify global and specific components in developmental dyslexia using various manipulations based on the rapid automatization paradigm (RAN). In two experiments, we used both factor analysis and the Rate-and-Amount Model to verify if one (or more) global factor(s) and a variety of specific effects contribute to the naming (and visual search) deficits in children with dyslexia. Results of Experiment 1 indicated the presence of three global components: pictorial naming, detailed orthographic analysis, and visual search. Pictorial naming is predicated by typical RAN tasks (such as naming colors or objects), independent of set size, but also from a variety of other tasks including Stroop interference conditions. The detailed orthographic analysis factor accounts for naming of orthographic stimuli at high set size. Visual search marked tasks requiring the scanning of visual targets. Results of Experiment 2 confirmed the separation between the pictorial naming and detailed orthographic analysis factors both in the original sample and in a new group of children. Furthermore, specific effects of frequency, lexicality, and length were shown to contribute to the reading deficit. Overall, it is proposed that focusing on the profile of both global and specific effects provides a more effective and, at the same time, simpler account of the dyslexics' impairment.     

Separating global and specific factors in developmental dyslexia

The general goal of the study was to identify global and specific components in developmental dyslexia using various manipulations based on the rapid automatization paradigm (RAN). In two experiments, we used both factor analysis and the Rate-and-Amount Model to verify if one (or more) global factor(s) and a variety of specific effects contribute to the naming (and visual search) deficits in children with dyslexia.

Results of Experiment 1 indicated the presence of three global components: pictorial naming, detailed orthographic analysis, and visual search. Pictorial naming is predicated by typical RAN tasks (such as naming colors or objects), independent of set size, but also from a variety of other tasks including Stroop interference conditions. The detailed orthographic analysis factor accounts for naming of orthographic stimuli at high set size. Visual search marked tasks requiring the scanning of visual targets.

Results of Experiment 2 confirmed the separation between the pictorial naming and detailed orthographic analysis factors both in the original sample and in a new group of children. Furthermore, specific effects of frequency, lexicality, and length were shown to contribute to the reading deficit.

Overall, it is proposed that focusing on the profile of both global and specific effects provides a more effective and, at the same time, simpler account of the dyslexics' impairment.     

D-N认知评估系统在AD/HD儿童认知评估中的应用

研究采用基于PASS理论建构的D-N认知评估系统(CAS)作为主要评估工具, 以临床推介的18名AD/HD儿童和18名在性别、年龄及智力水平与临床样本相匹配的正常儿童为被试, 对其PASS认知过程特征开展比较研究, 探查临床组儿童潜在的认知过程异常, 研究结果表明:(1)临床AD/HD儿童在CAS总量表分上显著低于正常对照组儿童;(2)临床AD/HD儿童与正常对照组儿童在计划和注意过程分数上存在显著差异, 且临床AD/HD儿童的计划和注意分量表分数可很好地预测其在DSM-IV上的注意涣散评估分数;(3)临床AD/HD组儿童与正常对照组儿童在同时性加工和继时性加工水平上则没有显著差异。     

Simultaneous and successive syntheses and linguistic processes1

The present study investigated the relationships between simultaneous and successive modes of cognitive processing and performance on word association, ambiguities and class inclusion tasks in a sample of 60 grade three children. Simultaneous processing was significantly related to class inclusion performance and to comprehension of lexical ambiguities. There was also some evidence of a relationship between paradigmatic responding on the word association task and simultaneous processing. Successive processing was significantly related to surface structure and underlying structure ambiguities and was also involved in class inclusion performance. These results are consistent with hypotheses derived from the neurolinguistic theories of Luria and Jakobson.     

Conditional discrimination in mentally retarded subjects: programming acquisition and learning set.

In Experiment 1, 3 subjects with retardation were exposed to two visual-visual arbitrary matching-to-sample problems each day. One conditional discrimination was presented under trial-and-error conditions, and the other was presented under a component training procedure. The latter began by establishing the comparison discrimination and its rapid reversal. The successive discrimination between the sample stimuli was established through differential naming. Then, sample naming was maintained in conditional discrimination sessions in which the same sample was presented in blocks of consecutive trials. Block size was decreased across sessions until sample presentation was randomized as in trial-and-error training (but with naming maintained). Two subjects initially learned only with component training. The performance of the 3rd subject was inconsistent across conditional discriminations. One of the successful subjects ultimately learned rapidly and consistently with trial-and-error procedures. Experiment 2 sought to demonstrate learning set in the other 2 subjects. Elements of the component training procedure were withdrawn over successive conditional discriminations. Ultimately, 1 subject nearly always learned under trial-and-error conditions, and the other learned under trial-and-error conditions combined with differential sample naming.     

The simultaneous activation hypothesis: explaining recovery from deep to phonological dyslexia

Deep dyslexia evolved into phonological dyslexia in one patient. Semantic errors resolved while phonological and derivational errors persisted in reading. Nonword reading improved but remained inferior to word reading. Despite a residual semantic deficit naming improved. The Simultaneous Activation Hypothesis explains recovery from deep to phonological dyslexia and the continued dissociation between reading and naming errors. Partial recovery to all three reading routes increased constraints for word selection at the phonological output lexicon (POL) improving word reading. With recovery, the POL receives additional supportive information from the partially recovered direct oral reading route and grapheme-to-phoneme conversion (GPC) eliminating semantic errors in oral reading. Nonword reading also improved because of partial recovery to all three routes. Semantic errors in naming persisted because additional constraints were unavailable at the POL to activate a phonological entry. Phonological and derivational errors were more frequent in reading than in naming the result of incomplete GPC recovery. Residual nonword reading deficits resulted from incomplete GPC recovery, indicated by the persistence of neologisms in nonwords. The Simultaneous Activation Hypothesis readily accounts for the evolution from deep to phonological dyslexia.     

The effects of semantic and phonemic prestimulation cues on picture naming in aphasia.

In this study of auditory prestimulation cues, picture naming performances under phonemic and semantic conditions were compared to picture naming performance under a neutral condition. Twenty aphasic subjects named 324 pictures (108 pictures x 3 conditions) each. Responses were scored using a coding system adapted by the investigator from classification systems used by Williams and Canter (1982) and Kohn and Goodglass (1985). Results indicated that naming accuracy was facilitated by phonemic and semantic cues. An examination of the distribution of errors under the three conditions revealed systematic effects of phonemic and semantic cues on the frequency of occurrence of specific error types. Increases in semantic paraphasia proportion scores and decreases in unrelated word error proportion scores were associated with the semantic condition, while increases in phonemic paraphasia proportion scores were associated with the phonemic condition. The finding that naming performance of aphasic adults varies as a function of the type of information provided by the cue is discussed in relation to cascade visual confrontation naming models.     

Stroop interference: Hemispheric difference in Chinese speakers

Some recent studies have demonstrated that the processing of color is favored by the nondominant hemisphere in English-speaking subjects. Single Chinese logographs in Japanese- as well as Chinese-speaking subjects are similarly favored. In the present study, it was hypothesized that more Stroop interference would occur in the nondominant hemisphere because the two processes involved in the Stroop effect (i.e., reading logographs and naming colors) are possibly localized in that hemisphere in Chinese-speaking subjects. Eighteen right-handed Chinese-English bilinguals were used as subjects. There were three conditions in each visual field: Interference, reading, and naming. Each slide was presented for 150 msec preceded by a fixation dot. Subjects were asked to verbally report as fast and as accurately as possible either the color words or the color names, depending upon the condition. Reaction times and error rates were analyzed. As expected, more Stroop interference was obtained when color words were presented in the left visual field. This result is in direct contrast with that of Y-C. Tsao, T. Feustel, and C. Soseos 1979, Brain and Language, 8, 367–371. In that study, more Stroop interference was obtained when the materials were presented in the right visual field in English-speaking subjects.     

Hemispheric differences in picture-word interference

In a picture-word version of the Stroop task, 30 right-handed subjects were tested under each of six conditions in which a picture alone or a picture plus a word were presented to the left, the right, or both hemispheres. In two additional conditions the picture was presented to the right hemisphere and the word was simultaneously presented to the left hemisphere, or vice versa. For all conditions, subjects were instructed to name the picture only, as rapidly as possible. Picture naming times were significantly slower for the conditions in which the pictures were accompanied by words than in the respective picture alone conditions. Moreover, simultaneous presentation of a picture and a word to both hemispheres resulted in greater interference (slower picture naming times) than did the simultaneous presentation of the picture and the word to either the left hemisphere alone or the right hemisphere alone. The latter two conditions, in turn, resulted in significantly more interference than did the simultaneous presentation of the picture to one hemisphere and the word to the other hemisphere. This pattern of results suggests that the Stroop effect obtained under normal circumstances is in large part a function of the interference caused by the simultaneous processing of items in the same hemisphere. In contrast to hemispheric differences reported for the color-word Stroop task, the effect of presenting a picture and word simultaneously to the right hemisphere did not differ reliably from that of presenting a picture and word to the left hemisphere. The failure to replicate this aspect of the color-word Stroop is attributed to differences in the abilities of the two hemispheres to process the respective target items (the color or the picture) of the two tasks.     

Threshold-style processing of Chinese characters for adult second-language learners

To assess the learning of word form and meaning in an unfamiliar writing system, we carried out primed-naming experiments with learners of Chinese at the end of their first and second terms in a Chinese class at an American university. The subjects were required to name a target Chinese character after a prime character had been presented for 500 msec. There were three priming conditions defined by the relation between the prime and the target: orthographically similar, homophonic, and semantically related. At the end of the first term, there was a significant facilitation for naming speed in the orthographic condition, but not in the homophonic or semantic conditions. However, at the end of the second term, orthographical facilitation disappeared. Instead, naming speed was facilitated by semantically related primes. A threshold-style framework was proposed to illustrate the processing of Chinese orthography, phonology, and semantics by second-language learners.     

小学汉语阅读障碍儿童的PASS认知加工特点

本研究以智力的PASS认知模型为基础,考察汉语阅读障碍儿童的PASS认知缺陷模式。研究采用DN:CAS认知评估系统,并结合统计分析对33名汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的PASS认知加工缺陷进行了分析。结果表明,汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童存在不止一种的PASS认知加工缺陷,可能在计划、注意、同时性和继时性加工的一个或几个方面出现了困难。继时性加工缺陷是汉语阅读障碍儿童的主要特征,与英语阅读障碍的研究相一致。此外,汉语阅读障碍儿童在表达性注意、言语-空间关系和继时性加工上的成绩差于生理年龄匹配组,仅达到阅读水平匹配组水平,这些的不足可能是由于发展迟滞所致。     

Six-member stimulus classes generated by conditional-discrimination procedures

In conditional-discrimination procedures with three sets of stimuli, A, B, and C, three stimuli per set (A1A2A3, B1B2B3, and C1C2C3), subjects (children and adults) learned to select Set-B and Set-C comparisons conditionally upon Set-A samples (A1B1, A1C1, A2B2, A2C2, A3B3, A3C3). If the conditional-discrimination procedures also generated equivalence relations, three 3-member stimulus classes would be demonstrable, A1B1C1, A2B2C2, and A3B3C3. In addition to these three sets, the present experiments used three other sets of stimuli--D, E, and F. The subjects learned to select Set-E and Set-F comparisons conditionally upon Set-D samples (D1E1, D1F1, D2E2, D2F2, D3E3, D3F3). This established a second group of three 3-member stimulus classes, D1E1F1, D2E2F2, and D3E3F3. In all, two groups of three 3-member classes were established by teaching subjects 12 conditional discriminations. The two groups of 3-member classes were then combined (successfully for 5 of 8 subjects) into a single group of three 6-member classes by teaching the subjects three more conditional relations (E1C1, E2C2, and E3C3). With three other children, enlarging the classes one member at a time also produced 6-member classes. As a consequence of class formation, 60 untrained conditional relations emerged from 15 that had been explicitly taught. Six of the subjects also proved capable of naming the stimuli consistently in accord with their class membership, but two subjects demonstrated class formation even in the absence of consistent naming.