INSTRUCTIONS,FEEDBACK, AND REINFORCEMENT IN REDUCING ACTIVITY LEVELS IN THE CLASSROOM

The biomotometer, an electronic device which simultaneously measures motor activity and provides auditory feedback, was used in combination with material reinforcers in an experiment to reduce children's activity level in a classroom setting. Subjects were nine boys and two girls, aged 9–13, from a day hospital program for emotionally disturbed children. After five baseline trials, each child had five contingent reinforcement trials in which he/she received feedback “beeps” from the biomotometer and was given toy or candy rewards after each trial in which activity fell at least 20% below mean baseline level. Then five noncontingent reinforcement trials were run in which children received rewards for wearing the apparatus without the feedback attachment. Results indicated that the intervention “package,” including instructions, feedback, and contingent reinforcement, was successful in all five trials for 8 of 11 children. Activity levels increased during the final noncontingent phase.     

THE GOOD PRODUCTIVITY GAME: INCREASING WORK PERFORMANCE IN A REHABILITATION SETTING1

Simple reinforcement systems have been used to improve performance in a broad range of settings. For example, in classrooms, the “Good Behavior Game” has been shown to be very effective (Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2 , 119–124). In industry, small bonuses were used to increase the punctuality of workers (Hermann, deMontes, Dominquez, Montes, and Hopkins, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6 , 503–572). In a sheltered workshop setting, Shroeder (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5 , 45–52) examined work rates under varying frequencies and amounts of reinforcement and response force. The present study involved the utilization of simple group contingencies to increase productivity in a rehabilitation industry. Four state hospital residents who were trainees at a rehabilitation industry participated in the study which examined the effects of feedback, and feedback plus the “Good Productivity Game” to improve work output. The task, for which the employees were paid a wage, involved sorting boards by size. When the employees were provided with feedback on the number of boards sorted during the observation period, productivity increased slightly over baseline. After a return to baseline, the “Good Productivity Game” was played. For performance, the game afforded the employees pseudo-competition (in that teams were paired against each other, but both teams always “won”) and simple rewards such as candy and early work termination. The game improved performance by 104% over the second baseline and by 64% over the third baseline. Data gathered on rates of on-task behavior by the employees correlate with the productivity rates. Data gathered on rates of staff attention paid to employees show little difference across conditions, thus corroborating the function of the “Good Productivity Game” in increasing work output. Although no formal data were collected, the staff continued to use the game with considerable success after the formal termination of the study. The “Good Productivity Game” appears useful in increasing work output in a rehabilitation setting. Further research should concentrate on the utility of the game throughout longer periods of the workday and over extended periods of time.     

THE CLASS SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF COMPLIANCE TRAINING WITH “DO” AND “DON'T” REQUESTS: ANALOGUE ANALYSIS AND CLASSROOM APPLICATION

Two experiments are reported in which the relationship between compliance with “do” and “don't” requests was examined with developmentally disabled children. In Experiment 1, a multiple baseline design across subjects with counterbalanced treatment conditions was used to evaluate a compliance training program composed of four phases: (a) baseline, during which no consequences were delivered for compliance, (b) reinforcement for compliance with one targeted “do” request, (c) reinforcement for compliance with one targeted “don't” request, and (d) follow-up with reinforcement on a variable ratio schedule for compliance with any “do” or “don't” request. Results of probes conducted before and after training within each condition indicated that generalized compliance occurred only with requests of the same type as the target exemplar (“do” or “don't”). In Experiment 2, these results were replicated in a classroom setting. Following collection of baseline probe data on student compliance, a teacher training program was successfully implemented to increase reinforcement of compliance first with one “do” and subsequently with one “don't” request of a target student. Results of multiple baseline probes across “do” and “don't” requests indicated that the teacher generalized and maintained reinforcement of compliance with other requests of the same type and to other students, with a resulting increase in student compliance with the type of requests reinforced. The impact of treatment on both teacher and student behavior was socially validated via consumer ratings. Implications of these findings with respect to response class formation and compliance training programs are discussed.     

An analysis of a performance feedback system: the effects of timing and feedback, public posting, and praise upon academic performance and peer interaction

In the first experiment, after establishing baseline composition rates in each classroom, timing (announcing time limits) and feedback (student self-scoring) were introduced followed by the introduction, removal, and reintroduction of public posting of highest scores. Timing and feedback improved story writing performance and public posting of highest scores improved performance even further in both classrooms. Teacher praise produced further improvement in one classroom but had no effect on performance in the other. Changes in on-task behavior paralleled changes in writing rate. Comments made by children concerning their own work or work of their peers were recorded throughout the experiment. Although the baseline rate of performance comments was almost zero, the introduction of each variable markedly increased the rate of performance comments. In the second experiment, baseline rates on reading and language exercises were established in a fifth-grade classroom. The entire performance feedback system was introduced on a multiple baseline across the two behaviors and then removed during the final phase of the experiment. Introducing the system improved performance on both tasks. These results further increased the generality of some of the findings of the previous experiment and of previous research on the efficacy of the experimental package of timing, feedback, public posting, and praise.     

The use of feedback and delayed praise to increase participation in a group activity

An intervention package consisting of immediate feedback, delayed social reinforcement, and early access to free time was designed and implemented in an attempt to increase the participation of eight 4-year-old nursery school students in a group activity session. The effects of the intervention were evaluated by means of a single subject withdrawal design (ABAB). Participation in the group activity averaged only 48.2% during the baseline phase, but increased to a mean of 64.3% when the feedback and praise conditions were introduced. When feedback and praise were withdrawn, participation decreased to 47.7%, but reintroduction of the experimental conditions resulted in an even larger increase in participation, to a mean of 79.2%. In addition, the occurrence of inappropriate verbalizations decreased from 25.2% during baseline to only 7.2% during the final experimental phase, even though they were not directly consequated.     

Teaching children with autism to ask questions about hidden objects

We taught 2 4‐year‐old children with autism to ask questions of an adult who held a closed box with a toy inside. The treatment package (modeling, prompting, and reinforcement) was evaluated with a multiple baseline design across the three question forms during training, generalization, and follow‐up evaluations. The first question form (“What's that?”) produced the name of the hidden item. The second form (“Can I see it?”) produced sight of it, and the third form (“Can I have it?”) produced the item itself. Both children learned to ask questions about hidden objects.     

Increasing recycling in office environments: The effects of specific, informative cues

We investigated the effects of prompts on the recycling behavior of approximately 217 faculty, staff, and graduate students in two academic departments of a large university. During the intervention, two signs were posted in each department. One sign prompted recycling (posted above the recycling receptacle), and the other sign prompted proper disposal of trash (posted above the trash receptacle). Results of a multiple baseline design across the two departments indicated that the sign prompt increased recycling behavior. Installation of the sign prompts in close proximity to receptacles in Department A resulted in a 54% improvement over baseline. Posting of sign prompts over containers 4 m apart in Department B resulted in a 17% improvement, whereas positioning the signs and receptacles in close proximity resulted in a 29% improvement over baseline.     

A married couple in separate therapy groups

Abstract

A behavioral contract was used to change several behaviors in a married couple's relationship. A multi-assessment “package” was used to determine the effect of the behavior change on the couple's relationship. A multiple baseline, single-subject design demonstrated that the treatment “package” was responsible for producing behavior change and changes in levels of satisfaction. Further research should concentrate on which components of the “package” may be the most critical. Multi-assessments provide the therapist or researcher with concrete data on a couple's progress in behavioral marital therapy.     

“Out of the Broom Closet”: The Social Ecology of American Wicca

The fastest growing form of religious identification, spirituality, or “new” religious movement in American society over the last decade is Wicca and related forms of “Neo-Paganism.” However, with no national organization and minimal local organization, little is known about its distribution across a privatized religious landscape nor about the features of state social and cultural environments that are receptive or contrary to its spread. This study uses Internet data to create estimates of the comparative strength of Wiccan-Pagan identification across the 50 states and conducts multivariate analyses of the ability of variables suggested in prior research to explain its distribution. Not only are the findings consistent with expectations, but differences in correlates of Wicca using the Internet data in contrast to existing measures of “New Age” spirituality highlight the empirical importance of maintaining distinctions between the two.     

Retention and Recall: Incidental Learning of Visual and Auditory Material

This study examined the effect on observer agreement of switching from a system of overt reliability assessment to two successive systems of covert reliability measurement. A primary purpose was to see whether agreement obtained with the use of covert data checks would improve over time if observers were provided with accurate feedback regarding their level of agreement. Seventeen undergraduate psychology students served as Ss. They observed instructional interactions between preschool children and their teachers. During the two week “overt” check period (Phase I), observers were aware of when their observations were being “checked” by a previously designated reliability assessor. In the subsequent covert phases (weeks 3–7) this information was not available to them during the observational sessions. When covert monitoring was implemented, agreement rates initially dropped significantly below the “overt” measurement phase. Gradually agreement rates improved until, in weeks 6 and 7, they were not significantly different from the initial overt measures. Es should be aware that an overt check on observer agreement may not reflect the true reliability of an observational system. However, when observers are given accurate feedback on their level of agreement, they are able significantly to improve their vigilance and consistency in the use of the observational system.     

Effects of training, prompting, and self-monitoring on staff behavior in a classroom for students with disabilities

This study extended the limited research on the utility of tactile prompts and examined the effects of a treatment package on implementation of a token economy by instructional assistants in a classroom for students with disabilities. During baseline, we measured how accurately the assistants implemented a classroom token economy based on the routine training they had received through the school system. Baseline was followed by brief in-service training, which resulted in no improvement of token-economy implementation for recently hired instructional assistants. A treatment package of prompting and self-monitoring with accuracy feedback was then introduced as a multiple baseline design across behaviors. The treatment package was successfully faded to a more manageable self-monitoring intervention. Results showed visually significant improvements for all participants during observation sessions.     

Enhancing frequency recording by developmental disabilities treatment staff

We evaluated a staff training and management package for increasing accuracy of recording frequency of problem behavior in a residential care facility. A multiple baseline design across the first and second work shifts showed that 2 of 8 participants increased their accuracy following in-service training, and all 8 improved during a condition with supervisor presence and feedback. Improvements were maintained when feedback was removed and generalized to activity periods when neither supervisor presence nor feedback was provided. Other staff behavior was not adversely affected by the intervention package.     

A SUPERVISORY STRATEGY TO IMPROVE WORK PERFORMANCE FOR LOWER FUNCTIONING RETARDED CLIENTS IN A SHELTERED WORKSHOP

A multiple component strategy was investigated for aiding staff responsible for supervising production of lower functioning retarded clients on contract tasks in an institution-based sheltered workshop. The strategy was assessed in a combined multi-element, multiple baseline across groups design with a reversal component. Production performance increased during the production supervisory strategy with all 16 clients, with the range of increase varying from a few percentage points to 150% of baseline production. Both the clients and staff (responsible for conducting the research) preferred working under experimental conditions rather than under baseline conditions which approximated those found in “typical” sheltered workshops.     

An instructional package to teach communication behaviors in a classroom setting

An instructional package consisting of modeling, written and behavioral rehearsal, and feedback was used to teach communication behaviors (simple sentence responses, information responses, and eye contact) to 17 emotionally handicapped students, ages ranging between 11 and 17 years. A multiple baseline analysis indicated that the communication behaviors targeted for training increased significantly following implementation of the instructional package. These behaviors also generalized across settings and nontrained questions and were maintained across time. Finally, the average amount of training time required for each subject was 2 hours, indicating that the use of the instructional package in a classroom setting was economical. These results show that communication behaviors can be delivered effectively and economically in a classroom setting.     

THE EFFECTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL “ENRICHMENT” PROGRAM ON THE BEHAVIOR OF INSTITUTIONALIZED PROFOUNDLY RETARDED CHILDREN

This study determined the effects of procedures designed to “enrich” the physical and social environment of an institutional ward on the “adaptive” and “maladaptive” child, adult, self, and object-directed behaviors of five profoundly retarded ambulatory females. Behavior observed in two treatment conditions, an environment “enriched” with toys and objects and an “enriched” environment coupled with differential reinforcement of adaptive behavior, was compared to behavior occurring in corresponding baseline or “austere” conditions and during a period of noncontingent reinforcement. The results generally revealed: (1) little change in adaptive and maladaptive child and adult-directed behavior across conditions, (2) an overall higher incidence of adaptive object-directed behavior and reduced self-directed maladaptive behavior in each treatment condition from that observed in corresponding control conditions, and (3) the use of an “enriched” environment and differential reinforcement of adaptive behavior resulted in maladaptive self-directed behavior being reduced and adaptive object-directed behavior being increased beyond that observed in the “enriched” environment alone. These behavioral gains were largely maintained during a follow-up condition by continuing the “enriched” environment and transferring the responsibility for differential reinforcement to direct-care staff.     

The effects of behavioral skills training on staff implementation of discrete-trial teaching

A behavioral skills training package was used to train 3 teachers to correctly implement discrete-trial teaching. The mean baseline proportion of possible correct teaching responses for Teachers 1, 2, and 3 increased from 43%, 49%, and 43%, respectively, during baseline to 97%, 98%, and 99%, respectively, following training. These data indicate that the training package consisting of instructions, feedback, rehearsal, and modeling produced rapid and large improvements in the teachers' implementation of discrete-trial teaching.     

Imitation of Self-Stimulation:

Three autistic children participated in single subject, reversal designs to compare the impact of over correction and adult imitation on self-stimulation. In addition to continuous 10-second observations of frequency of self-stimulation during 10 minute sessions, experimenter and observer also rated the child's mood, attention to the experimenter and quality of attention paid. The order of interventions was randomized fro each subject with baseline preceding each intervention. Although each child's response pattern was unique, the data showed systematic changes in rates of self-stimulation across conditions for two of the children with mean levels of self-stimulation declining during the over correction procedure and increasing during imitation. There were parallel changes in mood and attention with all three children appearing “happiest” and most attentive when their self-stimulatory behavior was imitated by the adult. These results raise interesting possibilities for using adult imitation as a vehicle for establishing a reinforcing relationship with the autistic child.     

THE APPLICATION OF GENERALIZED CORRECT SOCIAL CONTINGENCIES: AN EVALUATION OF A TRAINING PROGRAM1

Two aides operating a kindergarten-style program for institutionalized mental retardates were trained, using observer feedback, to apply generalized “correct” social contingencies to 10 defined classes of appropriate and inappropriate child behaviors. A multiple baseline design was used to demonstrate, sequentially, the effects of the training procedure upon the attending behavior of each teacher. After withdrawal of feedback, a posttraining follow-up served to assess the durability of training. For both aides, the effect of training was to increase the proportion of appropriate child behaviors attended to, compared with baseline data, and a follow-up over a number of weeks indicated that the effects of training were apparently durable.