Predicting Undergraduate Condom Use with the Fishbein and Ajzen and the Triandis Attitude-Behavior Models: Implications for Public Health Interventions1

The present study used two social-psychological theories of attitude-behavior relationships to investigate condom use by college undergraduates. One purpose of the present research is to provide information for public health practitioners to better design theory-based interventions to reduce the incidence of STD's by increasing the use of condoms. Another purpose is to compare the relative usefulness of two attitude-behavior models in predicting condom use. The Fishbein and Ajzen theory of reasoned action (Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein & Ajzen. 1980) was compared with a version of Triandis' theory of attitude-behavior relations (Triandis, 1977). Of major interest was whether variables in this version of the Triandis model increased the explanatory power of the Fishbein and Ajzen model in the prediction of condom use intention and behavior. In addition, specific outcome beliefs and normative beliefs held by subjects were used to predict condom use. One hundred and ninety college undergraduates were given a questionnaire designed to measure the components of the two models. Three months after completing the questionnaire, subjects were contacted by phone to record the subject's frequency of condom use (if the subject reported having had intercourse) during the 3-month period between initial assessment and follow-up. In the prediction of intention to use a condom, results indicate that one variable from the Triandis model, personal normative beliefs, increases the explanatory power offered by the expectancy value and normative belief components of the Fishbein and Ajzen model. In the prediction of reported condom use during the 3-month follow-up period, two variables from the Triandis model—perceived susceptibility and AIDS fear—significantly increased the predictive power of the Fishbein and Ajzen model. Based on these results, the authors propose an alternative model to explain undergraduate condom use. The implications of these findings for public health interventions to encourage the use of condoms is discussed.     

Reply to Fishbein and Ajzen

The purpose of the Songer-Nocks study was clarified, and the relationship of the predictions and results to the theoretical formulations of Fishbein and Ajzen were discussed. Results from the model-testing procedure originally performed with behavior as the criterion were presented using behavioral intention as the criterion. The findings revealed that the interactive effect of prior experience with attitude toward the act in predicting behavioral intention was not significant, and that the interactive effect of motivational set with normative belief in predicting behavioral intention was significant. In addition, a regression analysis of the BI-B relationship was performed in which the design variables were incorporated as predictors. Results showed that the inclusion of design variables aided the prediction of behavior significantly. Songer-Nocks' data were interpreted as being consistent with the overall Fishbein formulation, but as suggesting certain potentially specifiable limitations in predicting actual behavior from attitudinal components.     

Seat Belt Attitudes, Habits, and Behaviors: An Adaptive Amendment to the Fishbein Model

One hundred thirty-four introductory psychology students participatcd in a longitudinal study of seat belt usage. The model of Fishbein and Ajzen was tested, as was the construct of habit within this context. Multiple regression analyses supported the basic Fishhein and Ajzen model predictions. Attitudes and subjective norms predicted intentions, which in turn predicted behavior. Furthermore, habit predicted behavior better than intention. The following nonspurious relationships were observed in cross-lagged panel correlation tests: influence from subjective norm to intention, influence from intention to attitude, influcnce from attitude to subjective norm, influence from behavior to habit, and, of course, influence from attitude to behavior. Discussion included further consideration of the Fishbein and Ajzen model, social adaptation theory, and implications for seat belt usage.     

Effects of a persuasive communication on beliefs, attitudes, and career choice

Fishbein's Theory of Reasoned Action was used to formulate a persuasive communication in an attempt to influence unclassified American college students' beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors regarding signing up for a career as a registered nurse. A two-stage cluster sample was used to assign 90 male and female students to either an experimental or control group. After persuasive communication exposure, the experimental group showed a significantly more positive change in beliefs, attitudes, and intentions than did the control group exposed to a neutral message. Sign-up rate was also statistically significant for the experimental group. With the Fishbein model to predict sign-up behavior, no other scores were found to add to the prediction once behavioral intention was entered into the model. Change in behavioral intention explained 49% of the variation in behavior. Normative belief scores did not approach statistical significance.     

A Test and Expansion of the Fishbein Model on Religious Attitudes and Behavior in Thailand

Fishbein's reasoned action model of relationships among attitude, subjec- tive norm, intention, and behavior (Azjen & Fishbein, 1980) was tested on a sample of 110 Thai teachers' college students. The behavior investigated was the culturally well-established religious behavior of merit making during Buddhist Lent. The addition of two components to the model was also examined through (a) previous experience with the behavior and (b) a moral or valuative dimension of attitude. Correlational analysis supported the reasoned action model with the inclusion of affective and valuative components to attitude. Sequential multiple-regression analyses showed that subjective norms did not contribute unique variance to the prediction of intention, but previous experience with the behavior and the affective component of attitude both did.     

Predicting Zimbabwean women's ability to tell their partners to use condoms.

The effectiveness of AIDS education may depend on the development of models that predict and explain HIV prevention behavior. In this study, the aim was to test Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action model in predicting women's capacity to tell their partner to use condoms. The basic theory pertains to the relationship of 1) attitude toward behavior and 2) the subjective norms to behavior; further refinements reflect factors such as 3) perceived behavioral control or self-efficacy, 4) and perceived barriers. A sample was drawn of 123 female first-year teacher trainees in Harare, Zimbabwe, in late 1990; a self-administered questionnaire was distributed and returned. 72% of the respondents were sexually experienced. The mean age of the entire sample was 24 years. The results of the multiple linear regression indicated that the model was able to predict were F(2,74)=32.81, p.0001. 47% of the variance was explained by this Fishbein model. Attitude toward behavior was significantly associated with the intention to tell one's partner to use condoms (beta = .60, p .05). Subjective norms were not significant (beta = .15, p .05). Perceived behavioral control and perceived barriers were also not significantly associated with the intention to tell one's partner to use condoms. A caveat was that the subjective norm was measured by only one item, and an improved conceptualization and measurement of this construct might have changed the relationship. The suggestion is that health educators should address women's underlying beliefs and attitudes about the benefits of telling their partners to use condoms. Future prospective studies will better delineate the relationship between attitude and behavior.     

Situational factors affecting the weighting of predictor components in the Fishbein model

The Fishbein regression model (B ≈ BI ≈ (Aact)w₀ + (NBs)w₁) is designed to predict behavior (B) from attitudes (Aact) and normative beliefs (NBs). Using a variation of theAjzen and Fishbein (Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1970,6, 466–487) method, potential limitations of the model were investigated. It was found that certain situational factors were capable of altering the nature of the model significantly. Aact carried a nonsignificant regression weight when the participant had had no prior direct experience with the act and carried a significant weight when the participant had had experience with the act. NB carried a nonsignificant weight under competitive motivational set conditions and a significant weight under cooperative set conditions. These findings raise the question of the generality of the Fishbein model, since different prediction models were required by different situational conditions. The hypothesized association between attitude and behavior appears to be dependent on prior experience with the behavior, while the association between norms and behavior seems to be dependent on consistency between personal motivation and perceived social expectations.     

Predicting Voting Behavior of Young Adults: The Importance of Information,Motivation, and Behavioral Skills

The information–motivation–behavioral skills (IMB) model has been shown reliably to predict and change a number of behaviors ( Fisher & Fisher, 2000 ). In light of low voter turnout among young adults, the present research examines the utility of the IMB model to predict voting behavior among this population. The predictive validity of the IMB model for voting behavior was tested, as well as its unique contribution to explaining voting behavior, over and above the theory of reasoned action ( Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980 ) and the theory of planned behavior ( Ajzen, 1985 ). As expected, the variables specified by the IMB model uniquely predicted intention to vote (Study 1) and voting behavior (Study 2), over and above the 2 other models.     

Cross-Cultural Testing of Three Social Cognitive Theories: An Application to Condom Use1

The aim of this study was to test the cross-cultural validity of Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action, Ajzen's theory of planned behavior, and Triandis' theory of interpersonal behavior and to apply them to understanding the intention to use a condom with a new partner in three ethnocultural communities: Latin American, English-speaking Caribbean, and South Asian. All respondents were recruited from multiple ethnocultural-venues using predetermined sampling frames and quotas for each community. The results indicated that the three theories have cross-cultural validity, but the theories of Ajzen and Triandis performed better than the theory of Fishbein and Ajzen. It is recommended that role beliefs and moral norm (personal normative belief) be added to Ajzen's model to maximize its predictive and explanatory ability.     

The Impact of Social Influences in the Context of Attitude,Self-Efficacy,Intention, and Previous Behavior as Predictors of Smoking Onset1

Three different constructs for measuring social influence were utilized in the present study to explain adolescents' present and future smoking behavior at 6 (T2), 12 (T3), and 18 months (T4) after the first test. Social influence was assessed by measuring the social norms, perceived smoking behavior, and direct pressure. The impact of the social influence constructs was also assessed in the context of broader models, including attitudes and self-efficacy expectations, intention, and previous behavior. The three social influence measures correlated significantly with intention and behavior. Stepwise regression analyses showed that perceived behavior and pressure made significant contributions, after entering social norms, in explaining actual and future adolescent smoking behavior. Adding attitudes and self-efficacy increased the predictive power of the model significantly. In agreement with the theory of Fishbein & Ajzen (1975), intention was the most powerful predictor in explaining present and future smoking behavior. Attitudes, self-efficacy, and the social influences also made small unique contributions improving the explanatory power by approximately 5%. Previous behavior, however, had a substantial unique contribution in predicting future behavior after attitudes, social influences, self-efficacy, and intention were entered in the equations. Since social influences may exert their impact via different routes, it is recommended that smoking prevention programs discuss not only overt pressures such as direct pressure from peers, parents, and media, but also address the more covert social pressures such as modeling and the adolescents' ability to cope with these covert influences. Furthermore, norms on nonsmoking should be made explicit.     

Generalizing Behavioral Findings Across Times,Samples, and Measures: A Study of Condom Use1

Data from a Knowledge, Attitude, Belief, and Practices (KABP) Survey, administered to a sample of residents of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, were used to replicate a previous study (Fishbein, Trafimow, Francis, et al., 1995) that investigated the relative importance, as predictors of condom use, of selected theoretical variables from the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen & Madden, 1986). Besides addressing generalization problems, the study tested a more internally valid formulation of the role of past behavior that supported the argument that past condom use is better viewed as a predictor of current intention than as a criterion variable. Perhaps more important, the influence of past behavior was found to be partially mediated by its effect on attitudes and norms.     

A comparison of three social-psychological models of attitude and behavioral plan: prediction of contraceptive behavior

We compared the predictive validities of three prominent models of attitudes and behavioral decisions: Rosenberg's instrumentality-value model, Fishbein's belief-evaluation model, and Beach's adaptation of subjective expected utility theory. Seventy female undergraduates rated each of the models' components and reported their attitudes and behavioral plans toward using three different methods of contraception. With the traditional across-subjects prediction procedure, the Rosenberg model generally accounted for 5-25% less variance in subjects' attitudes and behavioral plans than the Fishbein an Beach models, which were not different. With a within-subject prediction procedure, the Rosenberg model was again the least accurate, and the Fishbein and Beach models had similar predictive accuracy. As hypothesized, within-subject predictions were more accurate than across-subjects predictions. The relatively poor performance of the Rosenberg model was attributable to the instrumentality component. In addition, we found that the Beach model could be simplified with no appreciable loss in predictive accuracy. Finally, a subject's personal normative beliefs emerged as a strong independent predictor of behavioral plan.     

Choice Sets and Choice Intentions

Abstract

Researchers have widely accepted the argument that the Fishbein model generally predicts better if the intention measure corresponds to the predicted behavior with respect to target, action, context, and time frame. Although the model is routinely applied in situations involving choice among multiple alternatives, researchers frequently overlook the need to measure intentions so that they correspond to the multiple target behaviors that constitute the subject'S salient choice set. The present study was designed to demonstrate the effect of choice set on the measurement of behavioral intentions of American students. The data support the argument that Fishbein'S intention measure is quite sensitive to the choice set involved, perhaps one reason why intention measures sometimes fail to predict behavior accurately.     

Integrating the Unified Theory and Stages of Change to Create Targeted Health Messages

This study investigates the effects of targeted health messages toward reducing fat consumption by applying the unified theory of behavior change ( Fishbein et al., 2001 ) and the stages of change model. In Study 1, affect and outcome expectancies significantly discriminated individuals within each stage of change. In Study 2, affect was more effective in changing intention for precontemplative individuals, whereas outcome expectancies were more effective in changing intention for contemplative individuals. Gender was a higher-order moderator of this relationship: Precontemplative males were more influenced by an affective message, whereas contemplative males were more affected by a cognitive message. For females, a cognitive message was more effective for precontemplative individuals. There were no differences between the messages for contemplative females.     

A Longitudinal Application of the Theory of Reasoned Action to Women's Career Behavior1

Based on the theory of reasoned action (TRA; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), we hypothesized that young women's career intentions would be predicted by their gender-role attitudes and perceptions of their boyfriends' and parents' career-related preferences for them. Career intention was expected to predict future career behavior. The model was tested using longitudinal data from 105 women studied in 1973 and followed up 14 years later in 1987. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results supported the TRA: women's gender-role attitudes and their perceptions of important others' preferences predicted their career intentions, which predicted career behavior 14 years later. Implications for the study of women's careers and the longitudinal application of the TRA are discussed.     

Changing Contraceptive Usage Intentions: A Test of the Fishbein Model of Intention1

The Fishbein model of intention suggests that intention may change as a consequence of change in either a related attitudinal or normative component. This hypothesis was tested on intention to use contraceptives. Users and nonusers of contraceptives were exposed to a message designed to change contraceptive-usage attitude, to a message directed toward changing the normative beliefs associated with using contraceptives, or to a no-message control. The messages advocated one of three contraceptive techniques: (a) males were advised to use condoms, (b) males were advised to rely on their partner's use of oral contraceptives, or (c) females were advised to use oral contraceptives. Contraceptive-usage intention changed only in the two conditions where the model's requirements for change were present. Thus, the pattern of change agreed with Fishbein's suggestions and provided moderate support for the intention model and its application to intention change in health care settings.     

Determinants of Condom Use Among High-Risk Heterosexual Adults: A Test of the Theory of Reasoned Action1

The research presents tests of traditional and augmented versions of Fishbein and Ajzen's Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), applied to condom use among adult clients of a sexually transmitted disease clinic. In a longitudinal survey, predictor variables suggested by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), plus gender and condom use self-efficacy, were measured at Time 1. Condom use at Time 2, 3 months later, was regressed onto these variables. The traditional TRA worked well to predict condom use intentions and behavior. Support was also found for inclusion of gender and self-efficacy in the prediction of intention to use condoms, but not behavior. Implications for interventions to increase condom use among those at high risk for AIDS and other STDs are discussed.     

Spent: Sex,Evolution, and Consumer Behavior by Geoffrey Miller

Abstract

This study examined the accuracy of self-reports and their effect on tests of attitude-behavior relationships. Accuracy was estimated by comparing records of nongame tax-fund donations to self-reports gathered in a mail survey. Theoretical effects of self-report were examined by using path analysis to test a modified Fishbein and Ajzen model. An analysis using actual behavior was compared to an analysis using self-report, and both measures were included in a third path analysis. Self-reports were reasonably accurate, but they produced results different from actual behavior in attitude—behavior tests; self-report had effects on attitude and behavioral intention measures independent of actual behavior. We concluded that self-reports and past behavior should be measured, tested, and modeled separately in examining attitude—behavior relationships.     

Robustness and Sufficiency of the Theory of Reasoned Action in Longitudinal Prediction

An examination of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) applied to longitudinal data is reported. Data consist of responses of a national sample of high school sophomores concerning their college plans and subsequent achievements. Subjects initially were queried in 1955 and followed up 15 years later. Measurement robustness of the theory constructs was evidenced by confirmation of the predicted relationships despite novel and crude measures. The predictive utility of the theory was demonstrated in substantial prediction of both college attendance (2-3 years subsequent to the measures) and the ultimate level of education attained in the following 15 years. The sufficiency claims of the theory were challenged by the finding of a direct subjective norm-behavior relationship unmediated by intention. The impact of two exogenous, demographic predictors was mediated by this expanded model.     

Task and Scheduling Self-efficacy as Predictors of Exercise Behavior

Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1995, 1997) has figured prominently among social psychological approaches taken to the investigation of exercise behavior. The present study validated two measures of self-efficacy (scheduling and task) through confirmatory factor analytic procedures. In a separate study, the resultant factors were then used as independent variables in the prediction of exercise behavior and behavioral intention in a structural equation model. Task self-efficacy was found to be more related to behavioral intention than scheduling self-efficacy. Scheduling self-efficacy was found to be more related to behavior than task self-efficacy or behavioral intention. Results support different types and motivational functions of self-efficacy for exercise intentions and behavior.