Testing Serial Crime Events for Randomness in Day‐of‐Week Patterns with Small Samples

This paper discusses exact tests for evaluating whether a series of offences are randomly distributed across days of the week for small sample sizes. The context is if an analyst has identified a series of related events, can the analyst determine if those events are randomly distributed with respect to the day‐of‐week given only a few offences? This paper develops exact reference distributions because the number of potential permutations is small, and this research finds that the likelihood ratio G‐test under realistic circumstances is quite powerful. Only three crimes need to occur on the same day of the week to reject the null. Several examples of using the test under realistic circumstances are illustrated; a series of thefts of catalytic converters where the exact dates are unknown, gang shootings, and arsons over a year. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Juvenile prostitution and community rehabilitation: an exploratory analysis of beliefs and values

A community, juvenile prostitution rehabilitation programme in Bogotá, Colombia, South America is described; and beliefs and values of the residents were explored. Multiple sorting procedures and multi‐dimensional scaling analysis elicited qualitative, structured, self‐report data, and investigated cognitive constructs. Participants discriminated between belief‐statements along two global dimensions: street‐life and prostitution; and rehabilitation. These were comprised of qualitatively different elements. Clinical implications for interventions with this group and the rehabilitation programme are discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How strong is the comparison‐to‐the‐strongest heuristic?: An empirical test of the comparison‐ to‐the‐strongest heuristic in probability judgment1,2

Abstract: Windschitl and Wells (1998 ) proposed that the pairwise comparison between the focal and strongest alternative outcomes plays an important role in probability judgment. However, their studies did not control the effects of alternative outcomes other than the strongest one. This article tested whether only the strongest alternative outcome would affect probability judgment, using a variable selection method in a multiple regression analysis. Study 1 reanalyzed the results of Windschitl and Young (2001 ) and showed that only the strongest alternative outcome affects probability judgment. In Study 2, a new experiment was conducted to modify the methodological problems in Study 1. The results of Study 2 were identical to those of Study 1. All these results consistently supported the comparison hypothesis.     

Model and interactive algorithm of bi‐level multi‐objective decision‐making with multiple interconnected decision makers

Furthering a prior research on two‐person bi‐level multi‐objective decision‐making problems of the leader‐follower Stackelberg game, we present an extended model of bi‐level multi‐objective decision‐making with multiple interconnected decision makers at the lower level. In the model, the upper level decision maker acts as a leader and the lower level decision makers behave as the followers, and inter‐connections and interactions exist among these followers in decision‐making scenarios. Following the rules of leader‐follower Stackelberg game, we develop an interactive algorithm of the model for solving multi‐objective decision‐making problems and reflecting the interactive natures among the decision makers. Finally, the authors exemplify the model and algorithm, and draw a conclusion on points of contributions and the significance of this study in decision‐making and support. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Optimal Self‐esteem is Contingent: Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic and Upward Versus Downward Contingencies

We argue that noncontingent, unconditional self‐esteem is not optimal but defensive. We introduce the concept of intrinsic contingency, where self‐esteem is affected by whether one's actions are self‐congruent and conducive to personal growth. Whereas external contingencies, especially social and appearance, were negatively correlated with authenticity, self‐compassion, and personal well‐being, intrinsic contingencies were positively correlated with these measures, and uncorrelated with aggression and self‐esteem instability. Participants with high intrinsic contingency rated higher on measures of psychological adaptiveness than noncontingent participants. In addition, we distinguish upward from downward contingencies, the latter being more harmful in case of external contingencies but not for intrinsic contingencies. We conclude that intrinsic contingency, rather than noncontingency, may reflect true self‐esteem as implied in self‐determination theory. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Q‐sort methodology: Bridging the divide between qualitative and quantitative. An introduction to an innovative method for psychotherapy research

Q‐methodology offers unique opportunities for counselling and psychotherapy researchers and clinicians. It is an innovative technique capable of bridging the divide between clinical knowledge and the quantitative systematisation of it. It was initially developed by Stephenson as a data collection and data analytic method to empirically study human subjectivity. It was then extended by the British School to study shared viewpoints, thereby adopting a multi‐participant design and a highly unusual form of qualitative analysis. Finally, it was adapted by the Californian School for use as a standardised observer‐rated assessment tool. Its attractiveness stems from its aptitude to produce holistic data as it collects both quantitative and narrative data. This paper will provide an introduction to Q‐statistics and Q‐methodology (person‐centred) by contrasting it to R‐statistics and R‐methodology (variable‐centred). It will then provide an overview of the three schools of Q‐methodology and their various merits demonstrated with an example.     

A Decision‐Making Model for Addressing Problematic Behaviors in Counseling Students

Gatekeeping is the subject of continued discourse in the counseling profession. With revisions to the ACA Code of Ethics (American Counseling Association, 2014 ), recent litigation (Keeton v. Anderson‐Wiley, 2010 ; Ward v. Wilbanks, 2009 ), and focused attention on value conflicts in counseling (Francis & Dugger, 2014 ), counselor educators' role as gatekeepers is expanding. In addition to this expanding role, counselor educators are responsible for being culturally and developmentally sensitive in interpreting, applying, and enforcing the codes and standards with counseling students. This article proposes a decision‐making model that integrates feminist, multicultural, systems theory, and social‐constructivist ethical decision‐making principles to address problematic behaviors in counseling students.     

A procedure for generating differential "sample" responding without different exteroceptive stimuli

Sidman (1994, 2000) suggested that responses as well as stimuli can join equivalence classes, a hypothesis difficult to test because differential responding typically requires different stimuli. The present experiments describe a procedure with pigeons that avoids this potential confounding effect. In Experiment 1, spacing two responses 3 s apart (a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate [DRL] schedule) to a white stimulus on some trials produced food or the comparison stimuli in a matching task, whereas pecking 10 or more times with no temporal restrictions (a fixed-ratio [FR] schedule) produced the same effect on other trials. Completing the alternative (unscheduled) requirement terminated the white stimulus and repeated the trial. Following such errors, pigeons learned to switch to the alternative response pattern on the repeat trials. In addition, the correct response pattern functioned as a conditional cue for comparison choice. In Experiment 2, mixed DRL-FR training was preceded by two-sample/two-alternative matching-to-sample with DRL and FR sample-response requirements. In a subsequent transfer test in which the correct response pattern to white served as the sample, pigeons preferentially chose the comparison previously reinforced following that pattern in the baseline task. This "unsignaled response" procedure may be useful for assessing whether differential responses can be members of acquired equivalence classes.     

Compensatory knowledge signaling in consumer word‐of‐mouth

This paper extends prior research on consumer knowledge beliefs and word-of-mouth transmission. Findings from four studies suggest that people compensate for unfavorable discrepancies between their actual and ideal consumer knowledge with heightened efforts to signal knowledgeability through the content and volume of their word-of-mouth transmissions. This compensatory knowledge signaling effect is moderated by the self-concept relevance (psychological closeness) of the word-of-mouth target and lay beliefs in the self-enhancement benefits of transmitting product knowledge. Content analysis of participants' product communications further supports our knowledge signaling account. The relationship between actual:ideal knowledge discrepancies and heightened word-of-mouth intentions is mediated by the specific negative emotion associated with actual:ideal self-discrepancies. Overall, the findings suggest that the relationship between consumer knowledge and word-of-mouth transmission depends not only on what you think you know, but also on what you wish you knew.     

RELATIONS AMONG ACUTE AND CHRONIC NICOTINE ADMINISTRATION,SHORT-TERM MEMORY,AND TACTICS OF DATA ANALYSIS

Emerging evidence suggests that nicotine may enhance short‐term memory. Some of this evidence comes from nonhuman primate research using a procedure called delayed matching‐to‐sample, wherein the monkey is trained to select a comparison stimulus that matches some physical property of a previously presented sample stimulus. Delays between sample stimulus offset and comparison stimuli onset are manipulated and accuracy is measured. The present research attempted to systematically replicate these enhancement effects with pigeons. In addition, the effects of nicotine were assessed under another, more dynamic, memory task called titrating‐delay matching‐to‐sample. In this procedure, the delay between sample offset and comparison onset adjusts as a function of the subject's performance. Correct matches increase the delay, mismatches decrease the delay, and titrated delay values serve as the primary dependent measure. Both studies examined nicotine's effects under acute and chronic administration. Neither provided clear or compelling evidence of memory enhancement following nicotine administration despite reliable and systematic dose‐related changes in response latency measures. A modest dose‐related effect on accuracy was found, but the magnitude of the effect appears to be directly related to tactics of data analysis involving best‐dose analyses of a very circumscribed subset of trial types.     

A Closer Look at Life Goals Across Adulthood: Applying a Developmental Perspective to Content,Dynamics, and Outcomes of Goal Importance and Goal Attainability

It is well established that goals energize and direct behaviour across the lifespan. To better understand how goals are embedded in people's lives across adulthood, the present research examined life goals' content (health, personal growth, prosocial engagement, social relations, status, work), dynamics (interplay between goal importance and goal attainability), and outcomes (subjective well‐being) from a developmental perspective. We argue that people rate those goals as important and attainable that enable them to master developmental tasks, that they adapt their goals to personal capacities, and that goals predict subjective well‐being after 2 and 4 years. The sample included 973 individuals (18–92 years old, M = 43.00 years) of whom 637 participated 2 years later and 573 participated 4 years later. Goal importance and well‐being were assessed at all occasions and goal attainability at the first two occasions. Results indicated that age was negatively associated with importance and attainability of personal‐growth, status, and work goals but positively associated with importance and attainability of prosocial‐engagement goals. The association between goal importance and attainability was largely bidirectional over time; and goal attainability, rather than goal importance, was positively linked to later well‐being. Implications of these findings are discussed in light of adult lifespan development. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Automatic thoughts and meta‐cognition as predictors of depressive or anxious symptoms: A prospective study of two trajectories

The purpose of this prospective study was to explore the Automatic Thought Questionnaire Negative (ATQ‐30‐N) and the Meta‐cognitions Questionnaire (MCQ‐30) as predictors in the development of depressive or anxious symptoms. A sample (N = 201) completed the ATQ‐30‐N, MCQ‐30, and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist‐25 (HSCL‐25) twice with a three month interval. The HSCL‐25 measures both depressive and anxiety symptoms. Separate multiple hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the ATQ‐30‐N was a positive predictor for levels of depressive symptoms, while the MCQ‐30 was a predictor of both levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms, at follow‐up, when controlling for gender, age and pre‐test levels of symptoms. However, the MCQ‐30 did not predict future levels of depressive symptoms, when levels of automatic negative thoughts measured by the ATQ‐30‐N were statistically controlled for. The findings suggested that the ATQ‐30‐N predicts future levels of depressive symptoms, while the MCQ‐30 primarily predicts future levels of anxiety.     

Culture and self‐presentation: Influence of social interactions in an expected social relationship

This study investigates how the length and strength of an expected social relationship are related to different self‐presentations. Participants from Korea and the USA were assigned to different relationship conditions using vignettes, and indicated their self‐evaluation of personal abilities and social skills. The main effects of both relationship length and strength were found. There were more drastic interactions of culture and relationship length in intensive social relationship conditions than in loose conditions. Based on the results, we claim that the fundamental motivation for positive self‐regard is universal, regardless of culture and the self‐presentations that are tactical by individuals' social needs.     

Both Earlier Times and the Future Are “Front”: The Distinction Between Time‐ and Ego‐Reference‐Points in Mandarin Speakers’ Temporal Representation

Mandarin speakers, like most other language speakers around the world, use spatial terms to talk about time. However, the direction of their mental temporal representation along the front‐back axis remains controversial because they use the spatial term “front” to refer to both earlier times (e.g., front‐year means “the year before last”) and the future (e.g., front‐road means “prospect”). Although the linguistic distinction between time‐ and ego‐reference‐point spatiotemporal metaphors in Mandarin suggests a promising clarification of the above controversy, there is little empirical evidence verifying this distinction. In this study, Mandarin speakers’ time‐ and ego‐reference‐point temporal representations on three axes (i.e., sagittal, lateral, and vertical) were separately examined through two tasks. In a time‐reference‐point task, Mandarin speakers judged whether the time point of the second picture was earlier or later than the time point of the first picture, while in an ego‐reference‐point task, they judged whether an event or phase had happened in the past or would happen in the future. The results indicate that Mandarin speakers construe an earlier‐times‐in‐front‐of‐later‐times temporal sequence and adopt the front‐to‐the‐future orientation.     

Interhemispheric interaction in word‐ and color‐matching of Kanji color words1

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to investigate the possibility that a shift toward a within‐hemisphere advantage would emerge when two stimulus items receive, respectively, different processing (vs. when they receive similar processing). Using right‐handed participants, we briefly presented two Kanji color‐word items as either within‐field or across‐fields. Viewers had to match the two items in terms of ink color (a color‐matching task) or word meaning (a name‐matching task). Each Kanji color word was presented with the same (congruent) or different (incongruent) ink color relative to the word meaning. Our results were twofold. First, a within‐field advantage appeared in the relatively easier color‐matching task, whereas an across‐field advantage tended to occur in the relatively harder name‐matching task. Second, in the word‐matching task an across‐field advantage appeared when both Kanji color words appeared in similar processing manners (both congruent or both incongruent), whereas a within‐field advantage occurred when processing of two Kanji items differed (one congruent and one incongruent). These results suggested that a shift toward a within‐hemisphere advantage occurs when two items are processed in respectively different ways.     

Bullying among mentally‐ill patients detained in a high‐secure hospital: an exploratory study of the perceptions of staff and patients into how bullying is defined

The present study is the first to explore patient‐to‐patient bullying within a secure psychiatric hospital housing mentally‐ill patients. Its main aim was to provide an outline of the perceptions held by both patients and staff with regards to patient‐to‐patient bullying as opposed to providing an objective study of bullying. The total sample comprised 104 participants, 44 patients and 60 staff. These were sampled from wards housing male patients and wards housing female patients. All participants took part in a semi‐structured interview based on that developed by Ireland and Ireland [2003] and Ireland [2005, 2004]. One quarter of participants stated they had seen a patient being bullied in the previous week, with staff perceiving a higher extent of bullying than patients. Differences between wards were minimal. It was predicted that theft‐related bullying would be reported most frequently, that staff would identify a wider range of bullying behaviours than patients and that direct forms of aggression would be identified more readily as bullying than indirect forms. All predictions were supported. Problems in attempting to obtain a definition of bullying were also identified, with participants operating broader definitions than those found in the school‐based literature. For example, bullying was not generally considered a repeated form of aggression, the severity of the aggression or provocative behaviour of the victim were not defining features, and it was felt bullying could be accidental. In summary, the current study highlights how patient‐to‐patient bullying does occur in services housing mentally‐ill patients and that researching the behaviour may require the adoption of broader hospital‐specific definitions of bullying. Aggr. Behav. 32:1–13, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.