Effects of feedback and test practice on recollection and retrieval monitoring: comparing first graders,third graders,and adults*

We tested the effects of repeated testing and feedback on recollection accuracy in first graders, third graders, and adults. All participants studied a list of words and pictures, and then took three recollection tests, with each test probing different words and pictures from the earlier study phase. On the first and third tests no feedback was given, whereas on the second test, some subjects received item-level feedback throughout the recollection test. Recollection confusion scores declined across successive tests in all age groups. However, explicit feedback did not improve recollection accuracy or reduce recollection confusions in any age group. We also found that all age groups were able to use picture recollections in a disqualifying monitoring strategy without task experience or feedback. As a whole, these findings suggest that children and adults can use some aspects of retrieval monitoring without feedback or practice, whereas other aspects of retrieval monitoring can benefit from test practice in children and adults. We discuss the potential roles of metacognitive learning and unintended social feedback on these test practice effects.     

Mental addition in third,fourth, and sixth graders

Research on mental arithmetic has suggested that young children use a counting algorithm for simple mental addition, but that adults use memory retrieval from an organized representation of addition facts. To determine the age at which performance shifts from counting to retrieval, children in grades 3, 4, and 6 were tested in a true/false verification task. Reaction time patterns suggested that third grade is a transitional age with respect to memory structure for addition—half of these children seemed to be counting and half retrieving from memory. Results from fourth and sixth graders implicated retrieval quite strongly, as their results resembled adult RTs very closely. Fourth graders' processing, however, was easily disrupted when false problems were presented. The third graders' difficulties are not due to an inability to form mental representations of number; all three grades demonstrated a strong split effect, indicative of a simpler mental representation of numerical information than is necessary for addition. The results were discussed in the context of memory retrieval versus counting models of mental arithmetic, and the increase across age in automaticity of retrieval processes.     

Hemisphere asymmetries, spelling ability, and classroom seating in fourth graders

Fourth grade children (N = 159) from eight classes who were free to select their seating location in the classroom were tested for spelling ability. On 100 word spelling lists, the children (males and females) seated on the right side of the classroom (facing the teacher) were superior to children on the left. Analysis of spelling errors for reliance on phonological processing in a subsample (N = 28) revealed that right sitters made more phonetically inaccurate misspellings, whereas, on the left, females, but not males, committed more phonetically accurate misspellings. The results support the view that hemispheric information processing is correlated with classroom seating location or preference, but casual inferences regarding the neuropsychological mechanisms underlying these findings are unwarranted pending clarification of several major theoretical issues.     

Retrieval processes in fifth graders and adults

This research was concerned with retrieval processes which underlie conceptual clustering. In a free recall task with categorized lists, fifth graders' and adults' retrieval was examined temporally by means of interword response times. List organization and retrieval cue factors were manipulated in order to assess the developmental relevance of an hypothesized three component retrieval model. The results indicated that both age groups used a qualitatively similar retrieval strategy, involving search for and decoding of higher-order memory units. Providing retrieval cues eliminated the category search component, but also increased the likelihood of exhaustive recall attempts under random presentation conditions. The results were discussed in terms of the inter-relationships between storage and retrieval strategies. Age-related differences in retrieval time were attributed to insufficient reorganization during input and failure to attempt to recall all of a category's members.     

Perceptual-motor development of first graders as related to class,race, intelligence,visual discrimination,and motivation

The Bender Motor Gestalt Test was administered to 60 white advantaged, 60 white disadvantaged, and 60 black disadvantaged first graders. Contrary to expectation, there was no significant difference between the perceptual-motor performance of the white advantaged and disadvantaged children despite meaningful group differences in verbal IQ. The disadvantaged black children, however, performed significantly more poorly than either of the white groups. Perceptual-motor proficiency was also examined in relation to sex, intelligence, accuracy of visual discrimination, level of motivation, and familiarity with test content. While no single factor investigated was clearly related to level of perceptual-motor functioning, the perceptual-motor performance of girls regardless of race or class, was found to improve following familiarization with the test figures and heightening of motivation. The educational implications of a group-specific perceptual-motor “lag” are discussed.     

Perceived influences on career choices of eleventh graders: Sex,SES, and ethnic group comparisons

The project Sex-Role Values and Career Decision Making was conducted to examine the responses of eleventh-grade high school students to sex-role-related values and to relate these responses to their educational and occupational aspirations. The concern of the present article is the influence of Sex, SES (socioeconomic status), and ethnicity on the reasons students give for their career choices. While students' responses were found to be generally similar across Sex, SES, and ethnic groups, the results indicated that females were significantly less likely than males to mention practical considerations, money, prestige, or status as elements in their career decisions, and more likely to mention helping others and personal achievement. The implications of these sex differences for sex equality in the career selection process are considered.The project reported on in this article was performed pursuant to a grant from the National Institute of Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare. The opinions expressed here do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the National Institute of Education, and no official endorsement by the National Institute of Education should be inferred.     

Learning-related skills and academic achievement in academically at-risk first graders

Using an academically at-risk, ethnically diverse sample of 744 first-grade children, this study tested a multi-method (i.e., child performance measures, teacher ratings, and peer ratings) measurement model of learning-related skills (i.e., effortful control [EC], behavioral self-regulation [BSR], and social competence [SC]), and their shared and unique contributions to children's reading and math achievement, above the effect of demographic variables. The hypothesized correlated factor measurement model demonstrated relatively good fit, with BSR and SC correlated highly with one another and moderately with EC. When entered in separate regression equations, EC and BSR each predicted children's reading and math achievement; SC only predicted reading achievement. When considered simultaneously, neither EC, BSR, nor SC contributed independently to reading achievement; however, EC had a direct effect on math achievement and an indirect effect on reading achievement via both BSR and SC. Implications for research and early intervention efforts are discussed.     

Understanding of moral emotions and social exclusion in pre-schoolers and third graders

Abstract

This study examined whether children use information about moral emotions when judging peer exclusion. Japanese pre-schoolers and third graders (N = 110) listened to stories featuring characters who felt happy or sad after engaging in immoral behaviour or avoiding immoral behaviour (pushing a child off a swing and stealing another child’s doughnuts). In study 1, participants judged the extent to which characters who felt happiness, guilt, and pride would be socially excluded. In study 2, participants judged whether characters who felt guilt, no guilt, pride, and no pride would be socially excluded. Participants believed that characters would be socially excluded based on moral emotions. Characters who did not feel guilt or pride were excluded more frequently relative to those who did; however, children found it easier to judge exclusion based on guilt rather than pride, especially in the case of pre-schoolers. Moreover, pre-schoolers had difficulty explaining their reasoning.     

Sex differences in the occupational choices of second graders

A questionnaire was administered to 61 second graders. Sexual differences in occupational choices were apparent. Boys chose twice as many occupations as girls. Of 29 occupations selected as “most desirable,” only one was mentioned by both boys and girls. Of 37 occupations selected as “least desirable,” only two were mentioned by both sexes. More boys than girls knew their father's occupation. Although 76% of the girls knew their father's occupation, they did not select that occupation for themselves. A series of hypotheses based on the above data was generated.     

The effects of architectural change,individualized instruction,and group contigencies on the academic performance and social behavior of sixth graders

In this study architectural changes, individualized instruction, and group contigencies placed on academic work were applied to the math and language period of an initially disruptive sixth-grade classroom. Within classroom comparisons indicated that individualized instruction with group contingencies sharply increased the academic production of children from all ability levels, significantly improved social behavior, and changed the teacher's mode of instruction and interaction with the children. Individualized instruction alone had lesser effects, while the architectural changes produced no significant changes in the academic or social behavior of the children or in teacher behaviors. Results of the study are discussed in terms of improvement of the intervention procedures, focus on academic programming, and a broadening of the base of behavior modification work.     

Predicting individual differences in attention, memory, and planning in first graders from experiences at home, child care, and school

This study adds to the growing literature linking children's experiences in the environment to individual differences in their developing skills in attention, memory, and planning. The authors asked about the extent to which stimulating and sensitive care in the family and in the child-care or school environments would predict these cognitive outcomes. The authors also questioned the primacy of experiences in the first 3 years of life. Data from a sample of 700 first graders whose experiences in the home and in child care or school were evaluated since early infancy revealed that the cumulative quality of the child-rearing environment was related to attention and memory but not to planning and that the quality of the family environment was more strongly associated with outcomes than was the quality of child care and of school. The quality of both children's early (6 through 36 months) and later (54 months and first grade) environments predicted performance on the attention and memory tasks.     

Relationships between work values,socio-educational and work experiences,and vocational aspirations of 6th, 9th, 10th,and 12th graders

Using a cross-sectional design and canonical regression analysis, the differential relationships between work values and social, educational, and occupational experiences and aspirations were examined for boys and girls in grades 6, 9, 10, and 12. Support was found for predicted differences in work-values correlates across grades and between sexes. The experiences and aspirations studied generally correlated positively with an intrinsic value pattern for girls rather than boys. Discussion focuses on possible determinants of sex-related differences in the patterning and correlates of work values.     

Mental rotation performance and the effect of gender in fourth graders and adults

The DSM-IV implicitly assumes that development is uniform across ability domains, which implies that relationships between ability measures do not differ across development. We assessed whether correlations between measures of nine ability constructs differed across samples of children aged 3 – 5 (n = 117), 6 – 8 (n = 116), 9 – 11 (n = 124) and 12 – 14 years (n = 92). LISREL analyses show that correlations in each age group differ from those of each other age group. Parallel analyses indicate that the latent structure of ability differs across age groups. We conclude that shared maturational processes, including changes in the connectivity of neural systems, are responsible for decreasingly and increasingly strong relationships between some ability measures.     

小学二年级学生汉语阅读知觉广度的眼动研究

小学生阅读知觉广度是阅读发展心理学中的一个基本问题。本研究以Eyelink 1000 plus眼动仪为工具,采用2（年龄）×5（窗口）的两因素混合实验设计,考察小学二年级学生汉语阅读的知觉广度。结果显示,二年级学生的知觉广度为右侧1-2个汉字。二年级小学生快慢读者在眼动指标上存在差异,但未发现在知觉广度上存在差异。阅读能力测验与眼动指标存在显著的相关,此外小学二年级学生的阅读速度可以预测学业成绩。     

Drug and alcohol prevention project for sixth graders: first-year findings

Data gathered in this study are the first-year results of a three-year program evaluation for a drug and alcohol prevention project. One hundred fifty-two 6th graders made up the target group which received instruction using Botvin's life skills training curriculum. Sixty-four additional subjects made up a control group which received no treatment. Both groups were pre- and posttested on the following variables: knowledge about and attitudes toward substances, self-concept, passivity, and locus of control. Results indicated that the program had a significant positive impact on the target subjects' passivity, knowledge about drugs and alcohol, and self-image.     

Beliefs about male and female competence held by kindergartners and second graders

The study investigated the beliefs of kindergarten and second-grade children of both sexes about the competence of boys versus girls. The children appeared to have clearly defined beliefs about who would use certain objects, and their beliefs coincide with stereotypic sex-role behaviors in society at large. There was no support for the development of a more generalized expectation of competence in males. There was no significant sex difference in response; there was, however, a grade difference. Second graders' views of competence were more closely aligned with sex-appropriateness ratings than were the kindergartners.This article is based upon the author's doctoral dissertation, presented to the School of Education of Syracuse University. The author would like to express her thanks to the chairperson of her committee, Margaret Lay, and to the committee members, Berj Harootunian and Patricia Crook.