Distribution-free tests of stochastic dominance for small samples

One variable is said to “stochastically dominate” another if the probability of observations smaller than x is greater for one variable than the other, for all x. Inferring stochastic dominance from data samples is important for many applications of econometrics and experimental psychology, but little is known about the performance of existing inferential methods. Through simulation, we show that three of the most widely used inferential methods are inadequate for use in small samples of the size commonly encountered in many applications (up to 400 observations from each distribution). We develop two new inferential methods that perform very well in a limited, but practically important, case where the two variables are guaranteed not to be equal in distribution. We also show that extensions of these new methods, and an improved version of an existing method, perform quite well in the original, unlimited case.     

Estimating and testing autocorrelation with small samples: A comparison of the c-statistic to a modified estimator

Huitema and McKean (Psychological Bulletin, 110, 291–304, 1991) recently showed, in a Monte-Carlo study, that five conventional estimators of first-order autocorrelation perform poorly for small (< 50) sample sizes. They suggested a modified estimator and a test for autocorrelation. We examine an estimator not considered by Huitema and McKean: the C-statistic (Young, Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 12, 293–300, 1941). A Monte-Carlo study of the small sample properties of the C-statistic shows that it performs as well or better than the modified estimator suggested by Huitema and McKean (1991). The C-statistic is also shown to be closely related to the d-statistic of the widely used Durbin-Watson test.     

Maximum likelihood estimation of the joint covariance matrix for sections of tests given to distinct samples with application to test equating

Consider an old testX consisting ofs sections and two new testsY andZ similar toX consisting ofp andq sections respectively. All subjects are given testX plus two variable sections from either testY orZ. Different pairings of variable sections are given to each subsample of subjects. We present a method of estimating the covariance matrix of the combined test (X ₁, ...,X _s ,Y ₁, ...,Y _p ,Z ₁, ...,Z _q ) and describe an application of these estimation techniques to linear, observed-score, test equating.The author is indebted to Paul W. Holland and Donald B. Rubin for their encouragement and many helpful comments and suggestions that contributed significantly to the development of this paper.This research was supported by the Program Statistics Research Project of the ETS Research Statistics Group.     

Performance on inhibitory tasks does not relate to handedness in several small groups of Callitrichids

Animal Cognition - Brain lateralization, a trait ubiquitous in vertebrates and invertebrates, refers to structural differences between the left and right sides of the brain or to the left and right...     

The association of ecological variables and psychological distress with exposure to community violence among adolescents

Ecological theory suggests that exposure to community violence should be related to individual, family, and community characteristics; traumatic stress theory suggests that exposure to community violence should be related to level of psychological distress. A correlational study of 468 older adolescents in New York City tested these hypotheses. Exposure was found to be moderately related to level of psychological distress, but was not related to family or neighborhood characteristics. It was concluded that the nature of exposure to community violence poses difficulties for interventions aimed at either prevention or amelioration of effects.     

A central limit theorem for families of stochastic processes indexed by a small average step size parameter,and some applications to learning models

Let > 0 be a measure of the average step size of a stochastic process {p _n ⁽⁾ } _n=1 ⁽⁾. Conditions are given under whichp _n ⁽⁾ is approximately normally distributed whenn is large and is small. This result is applied to a number of learning models where is a learning rate parameter andp _n ⁽⁾ is the probability that the subject makes a certain response on thenth experimental trial. Both linear and stimulus sampling models are considered.     

An approach to prediction of performance using behavioral and physiological variables

10 male, middle-distance runners selected for their potential or actual success in running 1500 metres were subjected to laboratory tests of VO2 max and run time at 85% VO2 max. Using the Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck, 1962), data were collected from the runners from which they were given a score on the Extraversion/Introversion dimension of personality. Pearson product-moment correlations were computed between 1500 m. run times and VO2 max, 85% utilization of VO2 max, and Extraversion scores. The highest correlation was between Extraversion and the 1500-m. run (r = .75). The multiple correlation between times for the 1500-m. run and Extraversion with VO2 max was .77. The results support the value of building comprehensive profiles for the athlete which include not only physiological and anatomical variables but behavioral measures as well.     

Comparing Group-Contingency and Individualized Equivalence-Based Instruction to a PowerPoint Lecture to Establish Equivalence Classes of Reinforcement and Punishment Procedures with College Students

The Psychological Record - Equivalence-based instruction (EBI) involves the teaching of socially relevant material (e.g., academic material) with stimulus equivalence procedures. In the research...     

Information technology and quality of work life: Comparing users with non-users

This paper is concerned with the potential future effects of information technology on office-type work and job attitudes. An argument from labour process theory has suggested that such technology will simplify and deskill jobs, thereby reducing the quality of work life. This proposition was explored within several government agencies. Over one hundred users' and nonusers' attitudes concerning information technology's future effects upon their jobs and quality of work life were assessed and compared. Data indicates that respondents did not anticipate uniform deskilling effects in the future. Differences between computer users and nonusers were limited, although significant differences between the two groups did exist for communication, job complexity and accountability/feedback scales. Effects of socio-demographic variables upon attitudes were also assessed and the results suggest that salary, age and education may be responsible for attitude differences that occur within each group. Implications for practitioners and researchers are outlined.The authors would like to thank Nancy Carter, Aaron Cohen, Cathy Kirchmeyer and Richard Long for their insightful comments made on an earlier draft of this paper as well as Brenda McPhail's and Hj Shawyer's editorial assistance. Usual disclaimers apply. Financial support for this research project was provided by the Social Sciences Research Council of Canada, Contract No. 494-86-0003 and by a grant from the Alberta Manpower Program, Contract No. 083080 and the Faculty of Management, The University of Lethbridge. The views expressed in this paper are the author's own and are not necessarily shared by these organizations.At the time this research was conducted the second author was an undergraduate student at the University of Lethbridge.     

Cognitive functioning of older people in relation to social and personality variables

Age differences in performance on memory measures and in subjective ratings of memory adequacy were examined in the context of 12 social, personality, adjustment, and lifestyle measures. Participants were 285 men and women, aged 65 to 93, of middle- and working-class backgrounds. A series of multivariate and univariate analyses revealed that a large proportion of the age differences and virtually all of the social-class differences on memory measures could be accounted for by contextual variables, with education, intellectual activity, extroversion, neuroticism, and lie scores (on the Eysenck Personality Inventory) all accounting for more of the variance in memory performance than did age. Self-rated memory adequacy was not correlated with performance, and although the expected finding of lower ratings by older participants was obtained with the working-class group, the opposite was true for the middle-class group. Implications of these results for understanding age differences in memory are discussed.     

Relationships between psychological variables relevant to asthma and patients' quality of life

The relationships between health-related quality of life and various psychological variables relevant to the clinical evolution of bronchial asthma were evaluated for 101 asthma patients ages 14 to 72 years. Scores on quality of life exhibited a significant negative correlation with perceived vulnerability, panic-fear personality, and irritability, fatigue, airway obstruction, hyperventilation, and panic-fear during attacks but was not significantly correlated with preventive behaviour, attack-related behaviour, recognition, and control of respiratory function, or quality of care. These results imply that the effects of the former group of variables should be taken into account when assessing asthmatic patients' quality of life.     

Comparing the sensitivity of manual pursuit and perceptual judgments to pictorial depth effects

Abstract - We examined whether a pictorial depth illusion influences the manual pursuit of a moving dot to the same extent that it influences the dot's apparent displacement. Fourteen subjects performed two tasks. In one case, they used their unseen hand to track a dot that moved on an elliptical path. In the other, they first watched the dot move on the same path, and then set an ellipse to match the shape of the dot's path. The illusion influenced the two tasks to the same extent, suggesting that the visual information processing is the same for the two tasks.     

Comparison of simultaneous prompting and constant time delay procedures in teaching sight words to elementary students with moderate mental retardation

Simultaneous prompting (a type of antecedent prompt and test procedure) and constant time delay were compared with four students with moderate mental retardation learning expressive sight words. A parallel treatments design across word sets and replicated across students was used. For acquisition, the simultaneous prompting procedures required fewer trials, sessions, and training time to criterion and resulted in fewer student errors during daily probe and training sessions. However, maintenance data indicated mixed results across the two procedures. Reliability data (both dependent and independent variables) revealed no differences between the two procedures in terms of the teacher's accuracy in recording student responses and implementing each procedure. Future research issues are discussed.