Successive teacher expectation effects across the early school years

The capacity for teacher expectation effects to interact and compound across a child's schooling offers a largely untested mechanism for magnifying or minimizing effects. This study examined four types of long-term teacher expectation effects: within-year effects of single teachers, cross-year effects of single teachers, mediated effects of single and multiple teachers, and compounded effects of multiple teachers. Participants were 110 students tracked from preschool through Grade 4 on measures of achievement and teacher expectations. Evidence was found for within-year but not direct cross-year effects. However, path models demonstrated enduring indirect effects of teacher expectations on cross-year achievement. Multiple years of teacher expectation effects were additive in predicting student achievement at fourth grade, with similar effects for teachers' over- and underestimates of student ability. The study extends understanding of longer-term teacher expectation effects.     

社会支持的调节作用研究

为了考察社会支持在人格特征和心理健康水平之间的调节作用,利用症状自评量表、社会支持评定量表和艾森克人格问卷简式量表对1102名大学生进行施测。层级回归分析的结果不仅支持了社会支持的调节作用,而且表明社会支持与个体的心理健康水平之间存在三种不同的关系形式,即(1)社会支持的主效应显著,但是调节效应不显著;(2)社会支持的主效应和调节效应同时显著;(3)社会支持的主效应不显著,但是调节效应显著。     

The Pros and Cons of Masked Priming

Masked priming paradigms offer the promise of tapping automatic, strategy-free lexical processing, as evidenced by the lack of expectancy disconfirmation effects, and proportionality effects in semantic priming experiments. But several recent findings suggest the effects may be prelexical. These findings concern nonword priming effects in lexical decision and naming, the effects of mixed-case presentation on nonword priming, and the dependence of priming on the nature of the distractors in lexical decision, suggesting possible strategy effects. The theory underlying each of these effects is discussed, and alternative explanations are developed that do not preclude a lexical basis for masked priming effects.     

Inverse target- and cue-priming effects of masked stimuli

The processing of a visual target that follows a briefly presented prime stimulus can be facilitated if prime and target stimuli are similar. In contrast to these positive priming effects, inverse priming effects (or negative compatibility effects) have been found when a mask follows prime stimuli before the target stimulus is presented: Responses are facilitated after dissimilar primes. Previous studies on inverse priming effects examined target-priming effects, which arise when the prime and the target stimuli share features that are critical for the response decision. In contrast, 3 experiments of the present study demonstrate inverse priming effects in a nonmotor cue-priming paradigm. Inverse cue-priming effects exhibited time courses comparable to inverse target-priming effects. Results suggest that inverse priming effects do not arise from specific processes of the response system but follow from operations that are more general.     

Understanding Self‐Effects in Social Media

The aim of this article is to improve understanding of self‐effects in social media, and to compare self‐effects with reception effects. Self‐effects are the effects of messages the cognitions, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors of the message creators/senders themselves. A total of 4 theories have tried to explain self‐effects in offline environments: self‐persuasion, self‐concept change, expressive writing, and political deliberation. The article reviews research into online self‐effects that evolved from each of these theories, and argues why self‐effects may be stronger online than offline. Based on this review, a model is introduced that helps explain how online self‐ and reception effects may coalesce and amplify each other. The article ends by presenting some suggestions for future research.     

Autoregressive Generalized Linear Mixed Effect Models with Crossed Random Effects: An Application to Intensive Binary Time Series Eye-Tracking Data

As a method to ascertain person and item effects in psycholinguistics, a generalized linear mixed effect model (GLMM) with crossed random effects has met limitations in handing serial dependence across persons and items. This paper presents an autoregressive GLMM with crossed random effects that accounts for variability in lag effects across persons and items. The model is shown to be applicable to intensive binary time series eye-tracking data when researchers are interested in detecting experimental condition effects while controlling for previous responses. In addition, a simulation study shows that ignoring lag effects can lead to biased estimates and underestimated standard errors for the experimental condition effects.     

Another look at category effects on colour perception and their left hemispheric lateralisation: no evidence from a colour identification task

The present study aimed to replicate category effects on colour perception and their lateralisation to the left cerebral hemisphere (LH). Previous evidence for lateralisation of colour category effects has been obtained with tasks where a differently coloured target was searched within a display and participants reported the lateral location of the target. However, a left/right spatial judgment may yield LH-laterality effects per se. Thus, we employed an identification task that does not require a spatial judgment and used the same colour set that previously revealed LH-lateralised category effects. The identification task was better performed with between-category colours than with within-category task both in terms of accuracy and latency, but such category effects were bilateral or RH-lateralised, and no evidence was found for LH-laterality effects. The accuracy scores, moreover, indicated that the category effects derived from low sensitivities for within-blue colours and did not reflect the effects of categorical structures on colour perception. Furthermore, the classic “category effects” were observed in participants’ response biases, instead of sensitivities. The present results argue against both the LH-lateralised category effects on colour perception and the existence of colour category effects per se.     

Commentary: Are Three Waves of Data Sufficient for Assessing Mediation?

Maxwell, Cole, and Mitchell (2011) demonstrated that simple structural equation models, when used with cross-sectional data, generally produce biased estimates of meditated effects. I extend those results by showing how simple structural equation models can produce biased estimates of meditated effects when used even with longitudinal data. Even with longitudinal data, simple autoregressive structural equation models can imply the existence of indirect effects when only direct effects exist and the existence of direct effects when only indirect effects exist.     

The Effects of Extrinsic Motivation on Scientific and Artistic Creativity among Middle School Students

The present study tested the effects of extrinsic motivation on scientific and artistic creativity among Chinese middle school students. In Study 1, a between-groups design was applied to examine the effects of expected rewards on scientific and artistic creativity among 123 students, and in Study 2 the same design was applied to examine the effects of expected evaluation from different raters on scientific and artistic creativity among 120 students. We also considered the effects of grade and gender in both studies. The results of Study 1 indicated that expected material reward had significant negative effects on scientific creativity for 7th graders, while expected social reward had significant positive effects on scientific creativity for 8th graders, and both expected material and social rewards had significant positive effects on artistic creativity. The results of Study 2 indicated that expected evaluation from teachers and classmates had significant negative effects on scientific creativity and significant positive effects on artistic creativity. These results suggest that there is no one-size-fits-all answer to the effects of extrinsic motivation and creativity, Factors such as culture, type of extrinsic motivation, grade, and domains of creativity must be fully considered when cultivating adolescents’ creativity.     

Modeling age and retest processes in longitudinal studies of cognitive abilities

Mixed effects models were used to examine the separate effects associated with age and retest on changes in various cognitive abilities. Individuals (N > 800) ranging in age from 40 to 70 years at the 1st measurement occasion were assessed with measures of memory, spatial abilities, and speed on 4 occasions. All cognitive abilities showed decline associated with increased age and improvement across the 4 measurement occasions. The age-related effects were similar across variables, but the practice effects were largest for memory and smallest for speed. When retest effects were not included in the models, the age-related effects were underestimated, with the magnitude of bias depending on the size of the ignored retest effects. It is suggested that both age and retest should be modeled simultaneously when analyzing longitudinal data because part of the change across occasions may be attributable to practice or reactive effects.     

I might look OK, but I'm still doubtful, anxious, and avoidant: the mixed effects of enhanced video feedback on social anxiety symptoms

Previous experiments suggest that cognitive preparation for video feedback enhances its effects. In the current experiment, which included 95 speech-anxious undergraduates, these effects were more fully assessed, including those on self-perception, anxiety, and speech-avoidance behavior, with an attention-control preparation as a comparison condition. A possible mechanism of the cognitive preparation’s effects, moderation of the effects of self-observer discrepancy, was also tested. Results indicated that the cognitive preparation showed strong effects in regard to self-perception of performance, weak effects in anxiety reduction, and null effects in behavior. Consistent with previous research, self-observer discrepancy showed a robust tendency to predict participant response across conditions.     

A New Look at Framing Effects: Distribution of Effect Sizes,Individual Differences,and Independence of Types of Effects

Levin, Schneider, and Gaeth (1998) identified three distinct types of framing effects in the literature: attribute framing effects, goal framing effects, risky choice framing effects. While most previous framing studies used between-subjects manipulations of frame, the present study used two sessions, spaced one week apart, to give each of 102 participants both framing conditions and all three types of framing. Using the difference between the score for the positive framing condition and the negative framing condition as the unit of analysis for each type of framing effect, the following were found: (1) reliable framing effects for attribute framing and risky choice framing, but not for goal framing; (2) distributions of individual framing effects showing that the aggregate-level effects were representative of individuals even though some individuals showed no framing effects; (3) no significant interdependencies between the three categories of framing effects; (4) individual differences in reaction to the task scenarios related to various of the “Big Five” personality traits as well as the Faith in Intuition scale. The use of within-subject designs to assess individual differences in decision-making phenomena such as framing effects and other biases and heuristics is recommended for future research.     

Psychomotor performance as a function of time of day

Previously reported data on mirror tracking were reexamined for time-of-day (TOD) effects on performance and for the interaction of these effects with sex and practice effects. Analyses showed a significant linear decline of mean score from 0900 through 1300 hours, a sharp postlunch recovery at 1400 hours, and another significant linear decline from 1400 through 1700 hours. These effects were orthogonal to sex and practice effects. Discussion emphasized the importance of control for time of day in experimental design and suggested several hypotheses about the decremental effects of time of day.     

A Review of: “Hollander,M. (2008). Helping Teens Who Cut: Understanding and Ending Self Injury.”

Based upon informal observation of adverse effects arising during behaviorally oriented parent-training programs, 119 parents attending such programs answered a structured questionnaire regarding six specific adverse effects. Each of the “side effects” were reported by a substantial portion of the participants. In most cases, the severity of effects was not extreme. The mean number of side effects reported by each parent was 1.70. Based upon these findings, clinicians conducting such parent-training programs are encouraged to provide content material to prevent or ameliorate these adverse effects.     

Model Selection with the Linear Mixed Model for Longitudinal Data

Model building or model selection with linear mixed models (LMMs) is complicated by the presence of both fixed effects and random effects. The fixed effects structure and random effects structure are codependent, so selection of one influences the other. Most presentations of LMM in psychology and education are based on a multilevel or hierarchical approach in which the variance-covariance matrix of the random effects is assumed to be positive definite with nonzero values for the variances. When the number of fixed effects and random effects is unknown, the predominant approach to model building is a step-up method in which one starts with a limited model (e.g., few fixed and random intercepts) and then additional fixed effects and random effects are added based on statistical tests. A model building approach that has received less attention in psychology and education is a top-down method. In the top-down method, the initial model has a single random intercept but is loaded with fixed effects (also known as an “overelaborate” model). Based on the overelaborate fixed effects model, the need for additional random effects is determined. There has been little if any examination of the ability of these methods to identify a true population model (i.e., identifying the model that generated the data). The purpose of this article is to examine the performance of the step-up and top-down model building approaches for exploratory longitudinal data analysis. Student achievement data sets from the Chicago longitudinal study serve as the populations in the simulations.     

Neighbourhood effects on error rates in speech production

Models of speech production differ on whether phonological neighbourhoods should affect processing, and on whether effects should be facilitatory or inhibitory. Inhibitory effects of large neighbourhoods have been argued to underlie apparent anti-frequency effects, whereby high-frequency default features are more prone to mispronunciation errors than low-frequency nondefault features. Data from the original SLIPs experiments that found apparent anti-frequency effects are analysed for neighbourhood effects. Effects are facilitatory: errors are significantly less likely for words with large numbers of neighbours that share the characteristic that is being primed for error ("friends"). Words in the neighbourhood that do not share the target characteristic ("enemies") have little effect on error rates. Neighbourhood effects do not underlie the apparent anti-frequency effects. Implications for models of speech production are discussed.     

The elusive link between conflict and conflict adaptation

A core tenet of the original conflict-monitoring model is that regulation is triggered automatically when conflict is present and that the same regulation mechanism explains both trial-to-trial adaptation effects as well as effects of block-wise conflict manipulations. We present here results from two experiments using the Stroop task that show (a) that adaptation effects in the absence of response repetitions may occur only at the beginning of testing and that (b) robust block-wise effects can be found even in the absence of trial-by-trial effects. Furthermore, we show that the failure to eliminate target-to-distractor repetitions can produce artificial trial-to-trial adaptation effects. Based on the evidence of a weak link between conflict and conflict adaptation, we argue that a wider range of possible reasons for conflict adaptation effects needs to be taken into consideration.     

The importance of social and ideal social dimensions in self‐congruity research

Chronic or situational self‐construal moderates the effects of four self‐congruity (SC) dimensions (i.e., actual, ideal, social, and ideal social) on brand evaluations. Past research has mainly focused on the actual and ideal SC effects; these effects have been found to be stronger than the social and ideal social SC effects. However, the findings of past research are based on samples from individualistic cultures. Individualists have a dominant independent self‐construal. We conduct two experiments to show that the social and ideal social SC effects are stronger than the actual and ideal SC effects for individuals with a dominant interdependent self‐construal. In Study 1, using samples from collectivistic cultures, four SC effects are compared. In Study 2, we examine how primed self‐construal, whether independent or interdependent, impacts the four SC effects. This research documents the importance of the social and ideal social dimensions in SC research.     

Response-mediated spatial priming despite perfectly valid target location cues and intervening response events

Attentional effects are often inferred from keypress reaction time (RT) studies when two sequentially presented stimuli, appearing at the same location, generate costs or benefits. The universality of these attentional attributions is challenged by data from perceptual discrimination tasks, which reveal that location repetition benefits and costs depend on whether a prior response repeats or switches, respectively. According to dual-stage accounts, these post-attentional effects may be abolished by making responses in between two target stimuli or by increasing target location certainty, leaving only attentional effects. Here, we test these accounts by requiring responses to stimuli in between targets and by increasing target location certainty with 100% valid location cues. Contrary to expectations, there was no discernible effect of cueing on any repetition effects, although the intervening response diminished stimulus-response repetition effects while subtly reducing location-response repetition effects. Despite this, there was little unambiguous evidence of attentional effects independent of responding. Taken together, the results further highlight the robustness of location-response repetition effects in perceptual discrimination tasks, which challenge whether there are enduring attentional effects in this paradigm.     

Mix me a list: Context moderates the truth effect and the mere-exposure effect

When participants are repeatedly presented with an unfamiliar stimulus, this stimulus is rated as more likable (mere-exposure effect) or more valid (truth effect) as compared with a similar non-repeated stimulus. Both effects have been discussed as effects of fluency. Typical research designs on these effects involve a test phase in which ratings of both repeated and non-repeated stimuli are required. Based on research on moderators of fluency effects, we propose that the procedure of assessing the effects with mixed lists of repeated and non-repeated stimuli contributes strongly to the emergence of both effects. Two experiments found that the truth effect and the mere-exposure effect were strongly moderated by whether mixed lists or only repeated items were used at the test phase: whereas strong effects occurred in a context of repeated and non-repeated stimuli, the effects vanished with only repeated stimuli. Methodological and theoretical implications are discussed.