Rationale of systematic desensitization and covert positive reinforcement

It was hypothesized that exposure to the anxiety-evoking stimuli would be the crucial element of three therapeutic methods aimed at reducing avoidance behavior. Adult phobics received either systematic desensitization. covert positive reinforcement, or extinction, with either a progressive (Wolpe) or a chronological (Cautela) presentation of the items of the hierarchy. The treatment of each group continued until each item evoked a score of 10 or less on the SUD scale. Placebo and wait list control groups were also included. Compared to the control groups, results showed that on the behavioral, subjective and attitudinal measures, the six treatment groups significantly and equally improved at both post-treatment and at follow-up (one month later). However, although the total number of item presentations was not statistically different among treatment groups, the gradual mode of presentation (Wolpe) required significantly less presentation than the chronological mode (95.5 presentations compared to 148.1, p < 0.01). Correlations among the different measures of fear were computed at each of the three assessment periods. The results are discussed with reference to Rachman and Hodgson's model of synchrony among measures of fear. Finally, the theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

TREATING OVERWEIGHT CHILDREN THROUGH PARENTAL TRAINING AND CONTINGENCY CONTRACTING1

Fifteen overweight girls aged 5 to 11 yr were randomly assigned to one of two weight-reduction treatments: response-cost plus reinforcement, response-cost only, or a no-treatment control group. In the response-cost plus reinforcement group, parents contracted to facilitate their child's weight loss by carrying out reinforcement and stimulus control techniques, completing weekly charts and graphs, and encouraging their child to exercise. The response-cost only group parents did not contract to reinforce their child's performance. The response-cost program applied to both experimental groups was conducted in weekly meetings in which parents lost previously deposited sums of money. Twenty-five per cent was deducted for missing the weekly meeting, 25% for failing to fill out charts and graphs, and 50% if their child failed to meet her specified weekly weight-loss goal. At the end of the 12-week treatment period, both experimental groups had lost significantly more weight than the control group. After an eight-week, no-contact follow-up, some of the lost weight was regained. The response-cost plus reinforcement group was still significantly below the controls. The response-cost group just missed significance. A 31-week, no-contact follow-up failed to show a treatment effect, but did show a trend towards slower weight gain by the response-cost plus reinforcement group.     

Social reinforcement as a determinant of performance, performance expectancy, and attributions

The effects of positive, negative, and nonreinforcement were examined during performance of a fine motor task to observe any expectancy and performance differences. Female high school subjects first learned the task and then were given a series of 30 trials in which social reinforcement was administered noncontingently. Positive social reinforcement had a significant effect on performance, while both positive and negative reinforcement had significant effects on expectancy. In addition, disparate attributions were made by each treatment group.     

Reducing covert self-injurious behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement through a variable momentary DRO procedure

Covert self-injurious behavior (i.e., behavior that occurs in the absence of other people) can be difficult to treat. Traditional treatments typically have involved sophisticated methods of observation and often have employed positive punishment procedures. The current study evaluated the effectiveness of a variable momentary differential reinforcement contingency in the treatment of covert self-injury. Neither positive punishment nor extinction was required to produce decreased skin picking.     

Self and external management compared with psychotherapy in the control of obesity

Seventy-four obese TOPS (Take Off Pounds Sensibly) members were assigned to one of five conditions: delayed treatment control, insight psychotherapy, self-management training plus external reinforcement, self-management training only, or external reinforcement only. The latter four groups met once per week for ten weeks and were seen at three and six months and followup. It was hypothesized that self-management plus external reinforcement would be superior to other conditions at both post-treatment and followup, and that this condition alone would produce continuing weight losses. Analysis of covariance on body weight, with pretreatment weight as covariate, indicated that self-management plus external reinforcement, self-management only, and external reinforcement only, did not differ in mean body weight at post-treatment. These three groups differed significantly from control and psychotherapy conditions, which did not differ from one another. Self-management plus external reinforcement produced better performance of techniques. At three and six month followup, differences between the four treatment conditions were no longer significant. Results are discussed in terms of evaluation of psychotherapy and behavior modification and durability of results.     

Concurrent schedules of positive and negative reinforcement: differential-impact and differential-outcomes hypotheses

Considerable evidence from outside of operant psychology suggests that aversive events exert greater influence over behavior than equal-sized positive-reinforcement events. Operant theory is largely moot on this point, and most operant research is uninformative because of a scaling problem that prevents aversive events and those based on positive reinforcement from being directly compared. In the present investigation, humans' mouse-click responses were maintained on similarly structured, concurrent schedules of positive (money gain) and negative (avoidance of money loss) reinforcement. Because gains and losses were of equal magnitude, according to the analytical conventions of the generalized matching law, bias (log b (double dagger) 0) would indicate differential impact by one type of consequence; however, no systematic bias was observed. Further research is needed to reconcile this outcome with apparently robust findings in other literatures of superior behavior control by aversive events. In an incidental finding, the linear function relating log behavior ratio and log reinforcement ratio was steeper for concurrent negative and positive reinforcement than for control conditions involving concurrent positive reinforcement. This may represent the first empirical confirmation of a free-operant differential-outcomes effect predicted by contingency-discriminability theories of choice.     

The relative efficacy of thought-stopping and covert assertion

The relative efficacy of Rimm's (1973) thought-stopping and covert assertion, thought-stopping alone, covert assertion alone and a placebo control was tested. All three experimental treatments were predicted to be superior to the control and differences among the experimental treatments were expected. Thirty-six volunteers with a strong fear of harmless snakes were given one of the four treatments. Results demonstrated the efficacy of the combined treatment, as had been shown in previous research, but also demonstrated the efficacy of the individual components alone. Scheffée Planned Comparisons at the post test and four week follow-up indicated that the three experimental groups were superior to the control on the three self-report and behavioral tests of fear of snakes (p < 0.01 for each) but not on a test of fears in general. Scheffée Post Hoc Comparisons showed no significant differences between the experimental groups. The possible overlapping functions of the components are discussed.     

The use of covert positive reinforcement in the treatment of a hyperactive child: An empirical case study

This study evaluated the effects of covert positive reinforcement (CPR) on a 9-year old, third-grade student who was causing a classroom disturbance. CPR was conducted for six sessions over a 3-week period to reduce (a) out-of-seat behavior, (b) excessive noisemaking, and (c) rocking-in-chair behavior. There was an immediate improvements in three target behaviors following the implementation of CPR by the school psychologist. Only the rocking-in-chair behavior shows a trend in the direction of a reversal effect during a 6-day follow-up.     

The separate and combined effects of covert and overt rehearsal in developing assertive behavior

The present investigation evaluated the separate and combined effects of covert modeling and overt rehearsal as a means of developing assertive behavior. Nonassertive clients (n = 66) received one of three treatments: covert modeling, overt rehearsal and covert modeling-overt rehearsal combined. A delayed-treatment group was included in the design to serve as a no-treatment control condition before clients were reassigned randomly to one of the three treatments. Treatments led to significant improvements on self-report and behavioral measures of assertiveness and self-efficacy. Although covert and overt rehearsal treatments were equally effective, the combined procedure led to significantly greater improvements which were evident at posttreatment and at an 8-month follow-up assessment. Treatment effects generalized to novel role-play situations and brought clients to the level of other persons who regarded themselves as adept in social situations requiring assertive behavior.     

Overt and covert antisocial behavior: Child and family characteristics among psychiatric inpatient children

The present study examined child and family characteristics associated with overt and covert antisocial child behaviors. Child psychiatric inpatients (N=258, ages 6–13) were identified as high in overt and/or covert antisocial behaviors (e.g., aggression and stealing, respectively) based on a structured parent interview measuring antisocial behavior. Children were classified into four groups derived from the factorial combination of level of overt (high vs. low) and covert (high vs. low) antisocial behaviors. Analyses were made of the children's reactions to hostile and anger-provoking situations, deviant and prosocial child behaviors at home and at school, and family structure and organization. Children higher in overt antisocial behaviors were more negative, resentful, and irritable in their reactions to hostile situations and more aggressive at school. They came from families with significantly greater conflict and less independence among family members. Children higher in covert antisocial behavior participated in fewer social activities and were higher in anxiety; their families showed significantly lower family cohesion and organization and less of an emphasis on moral-religious values. The results suggest reliable differences in child and family functioning as a function of patterns of overt and covert antisocial behavior.     

On the relative contributions of positive reinforcement and escape extinction in the treatment of food refusal

We compared the effects of positive reinforcement alone, escape extinction alone, and positive reinforcement with escape extinction in the treatment of the food and fluid refusal of 4 children who had been diagnosed with a pediatric feeding disorder. Consumption did not increase when positive reinforcement was implemented alone. By contrast, consumption increased for all participants when escape extinction was implemented, independent of the presence or absence of positive reinforcement. However, the addition of positive reinforcement to escape extinction was associated with beneficial effects (e.g., greater decreases in negative vocalizations and inappropriate behavior) for some participants.     

Instructions and group versus individual reinforcement in modifying disruptive group behavior

Head Start children were matched into two groups on the basis of rates of disruptive behavior during rest periods. Attempts were made to modify their behavior using either individual or group token reinforcement procedures. While the reinforcement procedures reduced inappropriate behavior somewhat, the addition of instructions to the reinforcement reduced the inappropriate behavior to near zero for both groups. Instructions alone, however, were ineffective in controlling behavior. Type of reinforcement (group or individual) did not produce differential effects. While experimental control over the target behavior was demonstrated, there was little carryover from the experimental room to the regular classroom. Even when treatment was introduced into the regular class, follow-up results showed that with time the target behavior approximated pretreatment levels. The results suggest that (a) the combination of instructions and reinforcement is much more effective than either one of these alone, (b) behavior change is specific to the environmental contingencies, and (c) the group reinforcement technique, which is much more easily implemented, was at least as effective as individual reinforcement in the present study.     

Reinforcement rate and force proportional reinforcement

The research examines the consequences of making two reinforcement contingencies simultaneously available for the same bar-pressing response. Specifically, two experiments are described which concern the effects of reinforcement rate upon force proportional reinforcement (FPR). In Experiment 1, reinforcement rate was constrained by combining differential reinforcement of low rate with a force-proportional reinforcement contingency. The group of rats exposed to this regimen eventually showed a significant increase in response force compared to control groups. Experimental vs control response rates were not significantly different. In Experiment 2, reinforcement rate was affected through the expedient of relating the probability of obtaining a single pellet to the response force. The group for which the probability-force relationship was discontinuous came to exert higher forces than either a group for which the relationship was fairly continuous or an ordinary variable ratio control group. Response rate was significantly higher for the control group.     

The effect of token reinforcement on McCarthy Scale performance for white preschoolers of low and high social position

In Study 1, the effect of making tokens contingent on correct performance of low social position preschoolers on the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilitieswas examined. Preschoolers in a token reinforcement group scored significantly higher (mean=8 IQ points) than subjects in a control group. In Study 2, the effect of tokens on McCarthyresults was examined as a function of social position in a 2×2 design. The high social position control group scored significantly above the low social position control. The low social position token reinforcement group, however, performed as well as both the high social position control and token reinforcement groups. Use of systematic reinforcement contingencies to reduce test error is discussed.     

Development and modification of a response class via positive and negative reinforcement: a translational approach

When responses function to produce the same reinforcer, a response class exists. Researchers have examined response classes in applied settings; however, the challenges associated with conducting applied research on response class development have recently necessitated the development of an analogue response class model. To date, little research has examined response classes that are strengthened by negative reinforcement. The current investigation was designed to develop a laboratory model of a response class through positive reinforcement (i.e., points exchangeable for money) and through negative reinforcement (i.e., the avoidance of scheduled point losses) with 11 college students as participants and clicks as the operant. Results of both the positive and negative reinforcement evaluations showed that participants usually selected the least effortful response that produced points or the avoidance of point losses, respectively. The applied implications of the findings are discussed, along with the relevance of the present model to the study of punishment and resurgence.     

Animal-Assisted Therapy with Farm Animals for Persons with Psychiatric Disorders: Effects on Anxiety and Depression,a Randomized Controlled Trial

This study examined the effects of Animal-Assisted Therapy with farm animals during a 12 weeks' intervention on anxiety and depression among psychiatric patients by using a randomized controlled trial with a follow-up investigation at 6 months. Ninety adult patients were included, with 41 completers in the treatment group and 28 in the control group. Anxiety measured using Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory did not decrease significantly during the intervention for the treatment group but was significantly lower at follow-up compared with baseline (p = 0.002) and with the end of the intervention (p = 0.004). There was no significant change for the control group. Depression measured using Beck Depression Inventory was significantly lower at follow-up compared with baseline for both groups, but there were no significant differences between the groups.     

Response cost,reinforcement, and children's porteus maze qualitative performance

Sixty fourth-grade children were given two different series of the Porteus Maze Test. The first series was given as a baseline, and the second series was administered under one of four different experimental conditions: control, response cost, positive reinforcement, or negative verbal feedback. Response cost and positive reinforcement, but not negative verbal feedback, led to significant decreases in the number of all types of qualitative errors in relation to the control group. The reduction of nontargeted as well as targeted errors provides evidence for the generalized effects of response cost and positive reinforcement.     

Positive and negative reinforcement effects on behavior in a three-person microsociety

Three-person groups, either of males or of females, resided for 6 to 12 days in a continuously programmed environment. Subjects followed a behavioral program that determined the sequential and contingent relations within an inventory of activities. The program consisted of positive reinforcement days and avoidance days. During a positive reinforcement day, each work unit completed by a subject incremented a group account. The account was divided evenly among the three participants at the conclusion of the study. During a negative reinforcement day, no money was earned, and the group was assigned work unit criterion that, if completed, prevented a reduction in accumulated earnings. During negative reinforcement days, subjects made aggressive verbal responses, which differed in magnitude among the four groups. These differences were evident in several distinct behavioral measures. Performances on components of the work unit were not demonstrably affected by the reinforcement schedules in effect, although during the avoidance condition one subject stopped working and another subject's productivity declined.     

Self-help and long-term behavior therapy for obesity

The Trevose Behavior Modification Program, a self-help group offering continuing care for obesity, has recently been shown to produce large long-term weight losses. The present study aimed to replicate this finding across different settings and participants, assessing the weight losses and attrition rates of 128 participants in three Trevose program satellite groups that used the same treatment procedures and manual as the central Trevose group. The satellite groups' results closely paralleled those of the Central Group. Mean intent-to-treat weight loss, or final losses recorded for all participants regardless of their treatment termination date, was 13.7 +/- 0.7% of initial body weight (1.8 +/- 0.7 kg). At two years, 43.8% of participants remained in treatment, having lost a mean of 19.0 +/- 0.8% of their body weight (16.2 +/- 1.0 kg); at five years, 23.4% remained, having lost 18.4 +/- 1.1% of body weight (15.6 +/- 1.5 kg). These results demonstrate that the Trevose model of weight control, combining self-help and continuing care, can be extended and disseminated to other settings, with potentially significant public health consequences.     

Perceived objectivity and the effects of evaluative reinforcement upon compliance and self-evaluation in blacks

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of positive and negative reinforcements upon black college students. In the first experiment subjects received either positive or negative reinforcement from a black or a white Evaluator. Behavioral change (compliance) was greater in response to negative reinforcement from a black Evaluator than in response to negative reinforcement from a white Evaluator, while there were no divergent effects of Evaluator's Race upon compliance with positive reinforcement. The same pattern obtained in subjects' self-evaluations. The second experiment offered a test of the hypothesis that the objectivity of black Evaluators was perceived as greater than that of white Evaluators, and that a manipulation aimed at equating the Evaluators on objectivity would attenuate the effects of Evaluator's Race upon compliance and self-evaluation in response to negative reinforcement. These hypotheses were generally supported by the results.