Substance use and violent behavior in adolescence

The relation between substance use and violent behavior in adolescence is reviewed, and each of five competing models of this relation is examined. I begin by presenting background material on adolescent substance use and adolescent violence. I then describe five different models that have been proposed to explain the association between substance use and violent behavior. Next, I review the adolescent literature concerning substance use and violence, noting methodological weaknesses that have plagued this research. I conclude with an evaluation of the five models and suggestions for future research.     

Family predictors of antisocial behavior in adolescence

The goal of the present study was to examine the combined and unique ability of different aspects of family functioning to predict involvement in antisocial behavior in a large nonclinical (community) sample of adolescents. Distinction was made between global (e.g., family socioeconomic status), distal (dispositional characteristics of parents), contextual (family characteristics), and proximal (parent-child interaction) factors that operate within families. Results show that proximal factors were significant predictors of antisocial behavior, independent of their shared variance with other factors. Consistent with the hypothesized mediational model, the effects of distal and contextual factors appear to be mostly indirect: after their association with proximal factors was taken into account, these factors were no longer significantly related to antisocial behavior. The implications of these findings for planning of developmentally appropriate interventions for adolescents and their families are discussed.     

Aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior in adolescence

This study examined whether a distinction between aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior can be empirically verified in a large (254 girls and 254 boys) nonclinical (community) sample of Dutch adolescents between 12 and 18 years old. The results of confirmatory factor analysis for both boys and girls shows that aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behaviors do not represent a single underlying dimension, but two separate constructs with moderate independence among them. These findings suggest that the conceptualization of adolescent antisocial behavior as a one-dimensional phenomenon is of questionable utility and supports growing evidence that aggressive antisocial behavior is distinct from other forms of antisocial behavior.     

Indirect peer aggression in adolescence and reproductive behavior

Evolutionary psychologists have suggested that indirect aggression during adolescence is a strategy to compete with same-sex peer rivals for resources, status, and mating opportunities. We collected survey data on 143 young adults to determine retrospectively, the amount of indirect aggressive behavior they perpetrated and the amount of indirect victimization they experienced in middle school and high school. We also collected information about reproductive opportunities such as age at first sexual intercourse and number of lifetime sex partners to determine whether aggression or victimization could be used to predict measures of reproductive opportunity. We performed a principal components analysis to develop factors from 16 aggression and victimization variables. Results indicate that females who reported indirect aggression toward peers had earlier ages at first sexual intercourse and females who were more victimized in adolescence experienced later ages at first sexual intercourse. We discuss these results in terms of intrasexual competition and evolutionary theory.     

Moral judgment and antisocial behavior in early adolescence

This project was designed to assess the relationship of moral judgment to a naturalistic measure of antisocial behavior—delinquent and predelinquent behavior. As a prelude, observations were made which confirmed that delinquents not only have low scores on the Kohlberg Moral Judgment Interview, but also that Rest's Defining Issues Test distinguishes incarcerated delinquent from nondelinquent groups. In the present study, each of a group of boys with disruptive and antisocial behavior was matched with a counterpart on 14 variables so designed as to minimize the effect of factors other than the stage of development of moral judgment in members of the two groups on the outcome of the testing procedures. When the impact of these extraneous factors was so minimized, results of Rest's Defining Issues Test revealed significant differences between the groups, while Kohlberg's interview did not. Clinical implications of this project are discussed.     

Symptoms associated with suicidal behavior in childhood and adolescence

In adulthood, depression is often accompanied by suicidal ideation or behavior. As a result, depression in adults is generally viewed as a sign of risk for suicide. However, according to a number of researchers, suicidal behavior in children and adolescents differs markedly from that in adulthood. Differences have been noted in frequency, gender distribution, and associated symptoms. This study examined age and gender differences in symptoms accompanying suicidal gestures and ideation in black children, aged 11–18, referred for psychiatric treatment. Results indicated that a difference exists in the types of symptoms associated with suicidal ideation as opposed to suicidal acts, and that these differences vary, depending on the age and gender of the child. Moreover, the findings indicate that depressed mood and other internalized symptoms are more common among disturbed children who manifest suicidal behavior than among those who do not.     

Executive functions in adolescence: inferences from brain and behavior

Despite the advances in understanding cognitive improvements in executive function in adolescence, much less is known about the influence of affective and social modulators on executive function and the biological underpinnings of these functions and sensitivities. Here, recent behavioral and neuroscientific studies are summarized that have used different approaches (cognition, emotion, individual differences and training) in the study of adolescent executive functions. The combination of these different approaches gives new insight into this complex transitional phase in life, and marks adolescence as not only a period of vulnerabilities, but also great opportunities in terms of training possibilities and interventions.     

Reputation, loneliness, satisfaction with life and aggressive behavior in adolescence

The present study analyses the relationship between adolescents' perception of reputation and aggressive behavior among peers. The sample is made up of 1319 adolescents aged 11 to 16-years-old. Statistical analyses with structural equation modeling were carried out to examine the direct and indirect effect of perception of reputation (real and ideal) on aggressive behavior. Results indicate that adolescents' real and ideal reputations are related both directly and indirectly to aggressive behavior. The indirect effects suggest that loneliness and life satisfaction mediate the relationship between adolescents' reputation and their aggressive behavior. These findings and their implications are discussed.     

Development of self-monitoring behavior from early to late adolescence.

The purpose of this study was to examine the development of self-monitoring behavior during adolescence. Due to limitations of the widely used Revised Self-Monitoring Scale (Lennox & Wolfe, 1984), the construct of self-monitoring has not been successfully examined in individuals younger than college age. For the purpose of expanding our knowledge regarding the developmental aspects of self-monitoring, the Adolescent Self-Monitoring Scale (ASMS) was developed, administered to young (junior high) adolescents, and found to be internally consistent and highly correlated with the Revised Self-Monitoring Scale. Factor analysis identified two subscales: (1) Ability to Modify Self-Presentation and (2) Sensitivity to Expressive Behavior of Others. An examination of 490 adolescents from 12 to 18 years of age provided support for the hypothesis that self-monitoring behavior does increase from early to late adolescence. ANOVAs produced a significant difference by age in overall self-monitoring behavior and in sensitivity to the expressive behavior of others. No age differences in the ability to modify self-presentation were found. The development of behavioral measures is suggested to determine more accurately the developmental aspects of the ability to modify self-presentation.     

The association between high status positions and aggressive behavior in early adolescence

The present study examined the association between high status social positions in early adolescence and both overt and relational aggression. A sample of 234 sixth graders (132 girls, 102 boys) completed peer nominations assessing aggression, social centrality, and coolness. Data analyses were based on all sixth graders who received peer nominations, for a total sample size of 417 students (224 girls, 193 boys). Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine both within-peer group differences and between-peer group differences. Results indicated relational aggression was related to higher overall social centrality and being nominated as cool even when controlling for overt aggression. Overt aggression appeared to be related to higher overall social centrality and being nominated as cool, but this relationship was much weaker when relational aggression was controlled. Although girls used relational aggression more often and boys used overt aggression more often, the use of relational aggression by either gender was related to membership in high status peer groups and high status within the peer group. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

The impact of school connectedness on violent behavior, transport risk-taking behavior, and associated injuries in adolescence

Adolescents engage in many risk-taking behaviors that have the potential to lead to injury. The school environment has a significant role in shaping adolescent behavior, and this study aimed to provide additional information about the benefits associated with connectedness to school. Early adolescents aged 13 to 15 years (N = 509, 49% boys) were surveyed about school connectedness, engagement in transport and violence risk-taking, and injury experiences. Significant relations were found between school connectedness and reduced engagement in both transport and violence risk-taking, as well as fewer associated injuries. This study has implications for the area of risk-taking and injury prevention, as it suggests the potential for reducing adolescents' injury through school based interventions targeting school connectedness.     

Genetically influenced change in sensation seeking drives the rise of delinquent behavior during adolescence

Sensation seeking is associated with an increased propensity for delinquency, and emerging research on personality change suggests that mean levels of sensation seeking increase substantially from childhood to adolescence. The current study tested whether individual differences in the rate of change of sensation seeking predicted within-person change in delinquent behavior and whether genetically influenced differences in rate of personality change accounted for this association. Sensation seeking and delinquent behavior were assessed biennially between ages 10-11 and 16-17 in a nationally representative sample of 7675 youths from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth: Children and Young Adults (CNLSY). Analyses using latent growth curve modeling found that within-person change in sensation seeking was significantly and positively correlated with within-person change in delinquency from childhood to adolescence. Furthermore, behavioral genetic analyses of a subset of 2562 sibling pairs indicated that there were substantial genetic influences on both initial levels of sensation seeking and change in sensation seeking during early adolescence, with over 80% of individual differences in change due to genetic factors. Finally, these genetically driven increases in sensation seeking were most important for predicting increases in delinquency, whereas environmental paths between sensation seeking and delinquency were not significant. These results suggest that developmental changes in delinquent behaviors during adolescence are driven by a genetically governed process of personality change.     

Predicting dating behavior from aggression and self‐perceived social status in adolescence

We investigated the longitudinal associations between self‐reported aggression, self‐perceived social status, and dating in adolescence using an intrasexual competition theoretical framework. Participants consisted of 536 students in Grade 9 (age 15), recruited from a community sample, who were assessed on a yearly basis until they were in Grade 11 (age 17). Adolescents self‐reported their use of direct and indirect aggression, social status, and number of dating partners. A cross‐lagged panel model that controlled for within‐time covariance and across‐time stability while examining cross‐lagged pathways was used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that direct aggression did not predict dating behavior and was negatively associated with self‐perceived social status in Grade 10. Self‐perceived social status in Grade 9 was positively associated with greater use of indirect aggression in Grade 10. Regarding dating, in Grade 9, self‐perceived social status positively predicted more dating partners the following year, while in Grade 10, it was higher levels of indirect aggression that predicted greater dating activity the following year. Overall, there were no significant sex differences in the model. The study supports the utility of evolutionary psychological theory in explaining peer aggression, and suggests that although social status can increase dating opportunities, as adolescents mature, indirect aggression becomes the most successful and strategic means of competing intrasexually and gaining mating advantages.

     

Factors associated with continuity and changes in disruptive behavior patterns between childhood and adolescence

The relationships between disruptive behaviors in middle childhood (7 to 9 years) and conduct disorder in adolescence (14 to 16 years) were studied in a birth cohort of New Zealand children. Latent class analysis suggested strong behavioral continuity, with children showing early disruptive behaviors having odds of adolescent conduct disorder that were over 16 times higher than children who did not display early disruptive behavior. Nonetheless, in the region of 12% of children showed a discontinuous history, with 5% of children showing an early onset of conduct problems and later remission while 7% showed later onset conduct problems. Children showing discontinuous histories of behavior problems came from backgrounds in which levels of risk were intermediate between those of children who showed a persistent pattern of conduct problems and those who were consistently nonproblem children. Peer factors played an influential role in behavioral change in adolescence, with individuals showing late onset of conduct problems having high rates of affiliation with delinquent peers but those showing remission of problem behaviors in adolescence having relatively low rates of such affiliations.This research was funded by grants from the Health Research Council of New Zealand, the National Child Health Research Foundation, and the Canterbury Medical Research Foundation.     

Intrasexual peer aggression and dating behavior during adolescence: an evolutionary perspective

It has been suggested that the use of intrasexual aggression is a form of competition associated with reproductive opportunities. Here the authors investigated the relationship between retrospective dating and flirting behavior and peer aggression and victimization during middle and high school. Results indicate that the use of peer aggression was associated with adaptive dating outcomes in both sexes, whereas experiencing peer victimization was correlated with maladaptive dating behaviors among females only. Females who perpetrated high levels of indirect (i.e. nonphysical) aggression reported that they began dating at earlier ages in comparison to their peers, whereas aggressive males reported having more total dating partners. Experiencing female-female peer victimization was correlated with a later onset of dating behavior, more total dating partners, and less male flirtation while growing up. This report strengthens the connection between adolescent peer aggression and reproductive competition, suggesting a potential functionality to adolescent peer aggression in enhancing one's own mating opportunities at the expense of rivals.     

Diagnostic status and symptomatic behavior of hard-to-manage preschool children in middle childhood and early adolescence

Followed 2 cohorts of hard-to-manage preschool children and comparison children without early problems to middle childhood and early adolescence. Children with early problems, especially problems that were still evident at school entry, were more likely to meet diagnostic criteria for an externalizing diagnosis at follow-up. Hard-to-manage children in Cohort 1 with problems that persisted from ages 3 through 9 years were much more likely to meet diagnostic criteria at age 13 than children whose early problems were less stable in elementary school. Similarly, hard-to-manage boys in Cohort 2 whose problems persisted at age 6 were more likely to meet criteria for an externalizing diagnosis at age 9 than hard-to-manage boys whose problems appeared less stable at age 6. Across cohorts, children with persistent problems had higher levels of symptoms and more varied symptoms at ages 3 and 4 and over the course of development.     

Co-occurrence of aggressive behavior and depressive symptoms in early adolescence: A longitudinal multi-informant study

IntroductionAggressive behavior and depressive symptoms co-occur frequently during adolescence. The failure model argues that the onset of aggressive behavior is more likely to precede the onset of depressive symptoms, whereas the acting-out model states that depressed mood predicts subsequent aggressive behavior. However, few longitudinal studies have examined with fully recursive models the temporal ordering of aggressive behavior and depressive symptoms during early adolescence.ObjectiveTherefore, this study examined the bidirectional associations between aggressive behavior and depressive symptoms during early adolescence, using a multi-informant cross-lagged panel model. Gender differences were also investigated.MethodWe used data from three waves of questionnaire data that were annually collected among 497 early adolescents (56.9% boys) and their parents, thereby covering an age range from 12 to 15. Adolescents reported on their depressive symptoms and the parents reported on the adolescents’ aggressive behavior.ResultsCross-lagged path analyses showed that early adolescents’ aggressive behavior predicted subsequent depressive symptoms, but early adolescents’ depressive symptoms did not predict aggressive behavior. Findings were similar for boys and girls.ConclusionThus, our results provide support for the failure model and suggest that reducing aggressive behavior at the start of adolescence might reduce the risk for subsequent depressive symptoms.     

Abortion in adolescence

Sexual attitudes and behavior of adolescent females have been the topic of much interest over the past decade. Feelings about contraception, conception, and abortion have been described in relation to the adolescents' beliefs about the possibility of becoming pregnant, who will or will not "protect" them, and the influence of significant others on their decision making. This study explores differences in 35 women who had abortions during their teenage years with 36 women whose abortions occurred after the age of twenty. A demographic questionnaire, the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, and the Beck Depression Inventory were completed by women who were members of a patient-led support group. Premorbid psychiatric histories, the decision-making process itself, and distressing symptoms postabortion are reported. Specific differences in perceptions of coercion, preabortion suicidal ideation, and nightmares post-abortion were found in the adolescent group. Antisocial and paranoid personality disorders as well as drug abuse and psychotic delusions were found to be significantly higher in the group who aborted as teenagers. Hypotheses regarding the influences of adolescent development on mother/child relationships, power struggles, and the use of fantasy as a coping device are explored.     

The predictive power of first-grade peer and teacher ratings of behavior: Sex differences in antisocial behavior and personality at adolescence

Peer and teacher assessments of aggression, social withdrawal, and likability using the Pupil Evaluation Inventory were recorded for 104 French Canadian girls and boys in grade 1. Self-reported delinquency and personality measures were administered to these children when they were in junior high school 7 years later. Linear regression analyses revealed significant predictive differences between the grade 1 assessment of girls and boys: For antisocial behavior, teacher and peer assessments of boys were equally good predictors, and the combination of the two assessments did not improve prediction; for girls, peer and teacher assessments taken separately were weak predictors, but, taken together, they were better predictors for girls than for boys; for personality, peers were better predictors than teachers both for girls and for boys. When categorical analyses were used to predict extreme antisocial behavior, peer and teacher assessments were equally good predictors for girls and boys. The use of peer and teacher ratings together, however, decreased the number of false positives. The implications of these findings for research and clinical work are discussed.