Assessing MMPI Constructs Through the Measurement of Response Latencies

Responses to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) were assessed with respect to their relevance to schema theory. The relation between scores on self-reported personality dimensions and the speed of processing test items associated with each dimension was examined. With previously derived factor analytic content scales, negative correlations were obtained between scale scores and mean latencies for endorsing relevant items, and positive correlations were found between scale scores and mean latencies for rejecting relevant items. A similar analysis completed on the traditional clinical scales revealed no such pattern. Results were interpreted as supporting the conceptualization of item responding as a content-based, schema-relevant process.     

Special Abilities Assessment in Children

The faking-detection validity and incremental validity of response latencies to Minnesota Multiphasic Personality inventory (MMPI) items was investigated using an analog research design. One hundred undergraduates were assigned at random to five groups: each group received different faking instructions (standard, fake good, fake bad, fake good with incentive, fake bad with incentive). All subjects completed a computer-administered version of the MMPI. Content-determined response deviance scores and latencies of responses to Subtle and Obvious scale items were determined for each subject. The principal findings suggest that response latencies may have greater faking good detection ability than responses deviance scores, and that response latencies have statistically significant incremental validity for both the detection of faking good and faking bad, when latencies are used with response deviance scores obtained from Subtle and Obvious scales.     

Development of a short form of the Treatment Evaluation Inventory for acceptability of psychological interventions

The Treatment Evaluation Inventory of Kazdin, French, and Sherick is a 19-item measure of the perceived acceptability of behavioural treatments. Development of two brief forms was based on data from two sources. For Study 1, data from 218 completed questionnaires were used to develop internally consistent brief scales. In Study 2 internal consistency and the validity of the brief forms were estimated for a set of 131 questionnaires. Item reduction was achieved by analysis of item-total minus item correlations. Brief forms with 3, 6, 9, and 12 items were proposed. Their internal consistency (Cronbach alpha) and construct validity were based on correlations of scores on each short form with the full scale scores and on comparing means of different forms. Discriminant validity was based on the difference between two groups (estimated effect size 0.7). Scores for all forms showed high internal consistency and correlated highly with total scale scores. Only the 12-item brief scale yielded mean scores similar to the full scale. The 3-item form could be used as a quick screen, and the 12-item form for more intensive purposes as it is most similar to the full-scale.     

Self-report measurement of type A behavior: toward refinement and improved prediction

Self-report measures of Type A personality receive wide research usage despite mounting evidence that they are poor predictors of coronary heart disease. It was proposed that the limited prediction results in part from the failure to restrict measurement to only those Type A characteristics that are demonstrably related to excessive stress. The first study in this article reports a factor analysis of all items on the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS), the most popular Type A questionnaire, along with 25 stress symptoms. Self-ratings were obtained from both male and female college students. Only one stress-related factor emerged including 12 JAS items out of 44. These were relevant to (a) hard-driving and competitive, (b) time-urgent, and (c) hostile/irritated characteristics. Study 2 reports correlations of +.50 and +.43 between the stress-relevant JAS items and stress for new samples of female and male college students. Study 3 considers the broader personality correlates of scores on the stress-relevant Type A items and reports markedly different patterns for male and female college students. Predicted correlations were found on new samples between these personality correlates, considered as scales, and stress-relevant Type A scores and stress.     

The expression of feelings as assertive behavior: A factor analytic extension of PRI

The aims of the study were to construct two assertiveness measures, expression of positive feeling and expression of hostile feeling, and to establish their factor analytic independence. One hundred and ninety-seven adults were administered the PRI along with the two new scales. The correlations of the 40 items of the two scales were first analyzed separately to identify the two hypothesized constructs. The five scale scores of the PRI (Defense of Rights, Social Assertiveness. Directiveness, Independence and Approval Seeking) were divided into half-scale scores on the basis of keying (the sums of true-keyed and false-keyed items), and then intercorrelated with the half-scale scores of the new scales. A principal components analysis demonstrated the presence of the six dimensions hypothesized and a measure of validity.     

The derivation of gender-role scales GM and GF for MMPI-2 and their relationship to Scale 5 (Mf).

Separate scales for masculine and feminine gender roles (GM and GF, respectively) were developed for the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) based on the item endorsements of men and women in the restandardization sample. Each scale reflects the pattern of answers of a majority of the members of the respective sexes. There are no items in common between the two scales, and they correlate -.10 with each other for both men and women. Distributional, temporal stability, and internal consistency characteristics were analyzed, as well as their item overlap and correlations with the basic profile scales. These separate unipolar scales were contrasted with Scale 5 (the Masculinity-Femininity scale, Mf), the traditional measure of these constructs in the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The conjoint use of GM and GF to form gender-role groups is recommended to supplement and clarify the ambiguity of midlevel scores on Scale 5.     

The Derivation of Gender-Role Scales GM and GF for MMPI-2 and Their Relationship to Scale 5 (Mf)

Separate scales for masculine and feminine gender roles (GM and GF, respectively) were developed for the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality inventory-2 (MMPI-2) based on the item endorsements of men and women in the restandardization sample. Each scale reflects the pattern of answers of a majority of the members of the respective sexes. There are no items in common between the two scales, and they correlate -.10 with each other for both men and women. Distributional, temporal stability, and internal consistency characteristics were analyzed, as well as their item overlap and correlations with the basic profile scales. These separate unipolar scales were contrasted with Scale 5 (the Masculinity-Femininity scale, Mf), the traditional measure of these constructs in the Minnesota Multiphasic Personaaty Inventory (MMPI). The conjoint use of GM and GF to form gender-role groups is recommended to supplement and clarify the ambiguity of midleveI scores on Scale 5.     

Dimensions of stuttering and relationship to psychopathology

This article reports two studies. The first attempted to define stable dimensions within the Stuttering Severity (SS) scale. A factor analysis of correlations among its 64 items defined four factor-based subscales, and three additional subscales were developed rationally. Relationships among these seven subscales suggested the existence of two major dimensions. The second study investigated the relationship of the seven subscales to psychopathology. Correlations were obtained among the subscales and MMPI scales for 69 subjects, and were subjected to a second factor analysis. The MMPI scales and the SS subscales clearly loaded on separate factors, indicating little relationship between dimensions of stuttering and psychopathology as defined by MMPI scores. The second analysis also supported the previous identification of two general dimensions for stuttering. Items were selected for two final scales to represent these dimensions, labeled behavior (22 items) and sensitivity (20 items). Norms were developed for them and also for the full 64-item SS scale.     

MMPI correlates of performance on a behavior therapy ward.

In a behavioral treatment program for acute psychiatric patients, points were earned for adaptive behavior (e.g. self-care, attending ward activities) and lost for maladaptive behavior (e.g. assaults, verbal abuse). Points earned could be spent for a variety of goods and services (e.g. passes, extra staff time). Statistically significant correlations were found between MMPI scale scores and point-earning behavior. High scores on the F, 5, 6 and 8 scales were associated with low point gain for adaptive behavior, high point loss for maladaptive behavior, a high proportion of points spent to points earned, and a low overall net point earnings. Low score on F scale in combination with high score on 2 scale best predicted point-gain behavior, whereas high score on 8 scale in combination with low score on 1 scale best predicted point-loss behavior. Overall net points were best predicted by low score on F scale in combination with high scores on 0 and 9 scales. When subjects were grouped into common psychiatric profile types, differences were found in point-gain behaviors for items related to personal care and attending ward activities. At least some of these differences could be attributed to two factors: high scores on the 2, 3 and 7 scales were associated with higher than average point earnings, while high scores on the 8 scale were associated with lower than average point earnings.     

National differences in personality; Brazil and England

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (E.P.Q.) was used to compare the structure of personality in Brazilian and English men and women, and to compare the mean scores of these population on the test. Six hundred and thirty six male and 760 female Brazilian adults were compared with 500 English males and 500 English females. It was found that identical factors appeared in the Brazilian as had been discovered in the English populations, and that intercorrelations of scales, reliabilities, etc. were similar for the two populations. Some items from the original study were found inapplicable in Brazil, and new items were substituted. A comparison of the mean scores of the two populations on a reduced scale, embodying only those items which were valid for both populations, showed that there were very few differences between the populations.     

Clinical correlates of anhedonia and perceptual aberration in first-episode patients with schizophrenia and affective disorder.

We examined the association between scales measuring physical anhedonia, social anhedonia, and perceptual aberration and premorbid functioning, clinical state, and current level of adjustment in 91 psychotic subjects. The patients were examined at the onset of their first psychotic episode and again 18 months later. For patients with schizophrenia, anhedonia was significantly related to premorbid functioning. No association was found between the scales and clinical state or level of adjustment at intake or follow-up. In affective disorder patients, no correlation was found between premorbid functioning (a stable characteristic) and scale scores, but moderately large correlations emerged between the scales and clinical state and level of adjustment at both assessment times. These results suggest that schizophrenic and affective disorder patients endorse items on these scales for different reasons. We hypothesize that for patients with schizophrenia, the scales assess enduring personality characteristics, whereas for the affective disorder patients, they assess clinical condition at the time of testing.     

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised and luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery for Children: intercorrelations for normal youngsters

The relationship between scores on the PPVT-R and Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery for Children was examined utilizing 86 normal children, including 55 females and 31 males from middle-class families. Correlation coefficients were computed between the standard scores obtained on the PPVT-R and the T scores from the summary scales on the Luria-Nebraska. Significant relationships were predicted between the PPVT-R and the Receptive scale on the Luria-Nebraska. Significant but small correlations were found between the PPVT-R and this scale as well as the Intelligence, Visual, Arithmetic, Memory scales on the Luria-Nebraska.     

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Suicide Anger Expression Inventory—28

We conducted 4 studies to develop and cross-validate scores on a multidimensional self-report measure of suicide and anger expression, the Suicide Anger Expression Inventory-28 (SAEI-28). The SAEI-28 evaluates Suicide Rumination, Maladaptive Expression, Reactive Distress, and Adaptive Expression with 7 content specific items each. Participants were between ages 14 and 47 years old. Study 1 developed a pool of content relevant and representative items for the new inventory. Study 2 explored potential domains of the SAEI-28 items, evaluating preliminary estimates of internal consistency reliability. Study 3 examined specific structures of the SAEI-28 items and scale reliability. Study 4 evaluated the fit of the oblique 4-factor model to 2 alternative solutions. Support was found for estimates of internal consistency reliability for the scales. Criterion-related validity and potential correlates for the SAEI-28 scales were also assessed.     

A Hostility Scale for the California Psychological Inventory: MMPI,Observer Q-Sort,and Big-Five Correlates

Using two samples, we developed and validated a hostility scale that can be scored from the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) and serves as an alternate for the Cook-Medley Hostility Scale (Ha; Cook & Medley, 1954). The CPI Hostility (H) scale consists of 33 items that are either duplicates or close equivalents of specific He items, and the two scales correlate at least .90 in samples differing in sex. The H and Ho scales show a similar pattern of correlations with conceptually relevant MMPI scales and with observer-rated personality attributes tapping Barefoot, Peterson, et al.'s (1991) five hostility categories of Hostile Affect, Cynicism, Aggressive Responding, Social Avoidance, and Hostile Attributions. These findings provide evidence for the equivalence of the two hostility scales, as well as external validation for those personality characteristics that are purported to underlie the construct of hostility as tapped by both the original Ho and the new CPI H scale.     

An investigation of two measures of career indecision

The present study compared two recent scales developed to measure career indecision, the Career Decision Scale and the Vocational Decision-Making Difficulty Scale. The subjects were 857 male and female undergraduates. The scales were factor analyzed, the total scores were correlated, and the factor structures were examined for similarities and differences. Test-retest correlations were performed on the items, the total scores, and the factor scores of both measures. Subjects who were satisfied with their career choices were compared with subjects who were unsure, dissatisfied, or undecided about their career choices using the items, total scores, and factor scores. The results are discussed along with the implications for the future development of the scales.     

The MMPI-2 Clinical Scales and Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales: comparative psychometric properties and relative diagnostic efficiency in young adults

We examined the psychometric properties of the Restructured Clinical (RC) scales (Tellegen et al., 2003) of the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) in a large sample (N = 744) of 18-year-old college freshman. We found that the RC scales demonstrated good convergence with their Clinical scale counterparts and were more distinctive than the Clinical scales. The patterns of discriminant correlations for the RC scales were slightly clearer than those of the Clinical scales and a set of other existing MMPI-2 scales. Diagnostic efficiency statistics based on Clinical and RC scale elevation status did not differ appreciably. However, the diagnostic efficiency statistics of cutoff scores derived from mean RC and Clinical scale T scores improved on the traditional scale elevation measures. We consider the clinical implications of these findings.     

Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach

We developed a multidimensional coping inventory to assess the different ways in which people respond to stress. Five scales (of four items each) measure conceptually distinct aspects of problem-focused coping (active coping, planning, suppression of competing activities, restraint coping, seeking of instrumental social support); five scales measure aspects of what might be viewed as emotional-focused coping (seeking of emotional social support, positive reinterpretation, acceptance, denial, turning to religion); and three scales measure coping responses that arguably are less useful (focus on and venting of emotions, behavioral disengagement, mental disengagement). Study 1 reports the development of scale items. Study 2 reports correlations between the various coping scales and several theoretically relevant personality measures in an effort to provide preliminary information about the inventory's convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 uses the inventory to assess coping responses among a group of undergraduates who were attempting to cope with a specific stressful episode. This study also allowed an initial examination of associations between dispositional and situational coping tendencies.     

Development of a random response scale for the multiple affect adjective check list-revised

A scale was constructed to identify random responses on the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List-Revised. Items chosen were the 14 least frequently checked items and 14 most frequently checked items, plus the seven most frequently checked negative items and the seven least frequently checked positive items (total=42). The Random Response Scale successfully differentiated random protocols from those produced by 420 college students, and scores on the scale were significantly higher for the college students than for the random sample. In addition, correlations between scores on the Random Response Scale and the Communality Scale (Adjective Check List) and the NEO-FFI Conscientiousness Scale suggest its usefulness as a measure of "conscientiousness" or "dependableness."     

Patterns of extreme responses to items in self-esteem scales: Does conceptualisation and item content matter?

Self-esteem (SE) scales are particularly susceptible for various response-sets. Systematic response alterations, often mirroring self-presentational item characteristics, can be triggered differentially depending on the content of items in a scale. The present study examined extreme responding to items in the global SE scale (Rosenberg, 1965) and the basic SE scale (Forsman & Johnson, 1996). The results showed that global SE scores were determined to a higher extent by extreme responses, in particular rejecting negative item content, than basic self-esteem scores. The implications of self-presentation contra self-esteem for an asymmetry in response patterns between the two scales are discussed.     

Structural and functional equivalence of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire within and between countries

The question was examined as to whether scores at the individual level and scores at the country level on the four scales of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) have the same psychological meaning. Using data of 24 countries, it was found that the EPQ has different factorial structures at both levels. Both the Lie scale and the Psychoticism scale were shown to jeopardize cross-level equivalence. For further exploration of the meaning of the EPQ scales within countries and between countries country-level correlations were calculated with a variety of country characteristics such as Gross National Product, political indices, religiosity, Hofstede's measures, and subjective well-being. Significant findings for 38 countries included correlations of the EPQ scales with Hofstede's Masculinity, Diener's Subjective Well-Being, religiosity, the number of deaths in a country due to political violence, and bribery. The most striking finding was a substantial negative correlation of the Lie scale with Gross National Product and other wealth-related indices.