Comparison of white, African American, Hispanic, and Asian children on the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test

This study examined differences between 3 matched samples of White (n = 2,306) and African American (n = 2,306), White (n = 1,176) and Hispanic (n = 1,176), and White (n = 466) and Asian (n = 466) children on the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT; J. A. Naglieri, 1997a). The groups were selected from 22,620 children included in the NNAT standardization sample and matched on geographic region, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and type of school setting (public or private). There was only a small difference between the NNAT scores for the White and African American samples (d ratio = .25) and minimal differences between the White and Hispanic (d ratio = .17) and between the White and Asian (d ratio = .02) groups. The NNAT was moderately correlated with achievement for the total sample and correlated similarly with achievement for the White and ethnic minority groups. The median correlation of NNAT with reading was .52 and NNAT with math was .63 across the samples. Results suggest that the NNAT scores have use for fair assessment of White and minority children.     

Hispanic and non-Hispanic children's performance on PASS cognitive processes and achievement

Hispanics have become the largest minority group in the United States. Hispanic children typically come from working class homes with parents who have limited English language skills and educational training. This presents challenges to psychologists who assess these children using traditional IQ tests because of the considerable verbal and academic (e.g., quantitative) content. Some researchers have suggested that intelligence conceptualized on the basis of psychological processes may have utility for assessment of children from culturally and linguistically diverse populations because verbal and quantitative skills are not included. This study examined Hispanic children's performance on the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; [Naglieri, J.A., and Das, J.P. (1997). Cognitive Assessment System. Itasca, IL: Riverside.]) which is based on the Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) theory of intelligence. The scores of Hispanic (N = 244) and White (N = 1956) children on the four PASS processes were obtained and the respective correlations between PASS and achievement compared. Three complementary sampling methodologies and data analysis strategies were chosen to compare the Ethnic groups. Sample size was maximized using nationally representative groups and demographic group differences were minimized using smaller matched samples. Small differences between Hispanic and non-Hispanic children were found when ability was measured with tests of basic PASS processes. In addition, the correlation between the PASS constructs and achievement were substantial for both Hispanic and non-Hispanic children and were not significantly different between the groups.     

A right-ear advantage for dichotic listening in bilingual children

A dichotic listening task was administered to two groups of right-handed Hispanic children enrolled in bilingual education classes. The younger group's mean age was 9:6, the older group's was 13:6. Two dichotic tapes were used, one in English, one in Spanish, consisting of 60 pairs of words per tape. The words were comparable across languages in terms of frequency, grammatical function, and phonetic composition. The results showed clear and equal right-ear advantages for both groups of subjects and for both languages. As expected, older children scored higher than younger ones, and performance on Spanish was better than on English. Neither of these effects interacted with the ear advantage, however. Ear difference scores did not correlate with proficiency in the second language (as measured by performance on the English tape), but there was a significant correlation (r = .58) between the degree of asymmetry in the two languages. These findings indicate that the left hemisphere is primarily (and equally) involved in processing both languages of bilinguals, and that this pattern appears to remain stable in development.     

The Effectiveness of DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency for Predicting Reading Comprehension of High- and Low-Income Students

Correlations and sequential analyses between performance on Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills–Oral Reading Fluency (DORF) and reading achievement on the Stanford Achievement Test–Tenth Edition (SAT-10) during 2003–2004 were examined for high- and low-income children. Participants were 215 third graders, 112 above and 103 below proficiency benchmarks for DORF. For below benchmark students, DORF scores strongly predicted SAT-10 comprehension. For above benchmark students (a) DORF scores predicted comprehension for high- but not low-income students; (b) statistically significant differences in reading fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary existed between high- and low-income students; (c) reading vocabulary equally predicted comprehension for students of differing economic backgrounds; and (d) reading fluency did not predict comprehension for low-income students beyond what was accounted for by vocabulary.     

Ethnicity and bender visual motor gestalt test performance

This study compared differences in the Bender-Gestalt mean error scores of the 1,938 black, Hispanic, and white children in the System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA) standardization sample. A two-way between groups unweighted means ANOVA was performed on the error scores for the seven age groups and for the three ethnic groups. Significant differences were found for both main effects. Black children performed lower than (a) white children at every age level and (b) Hispanic children at all except one age level. Hispanic children performed similarly to white children at all except two age levels. Results support those reported by other investigations, but do not offer any clues to account for the findings.     

A Cross-Cultural Investigation of Relational and Social Aggression in Female College Students from Puerto Rico and the United States

Researchers compared scores on a self-report measure of relational and social aggression using 2 groups, European American female university students (M = 20.23 years, SD = 3.88) from the mid-Atlantic region of the United States and Hispanic females from Puerto Rico (M = 19.34 years, SD = 1.26). Results indicate that cultural differences were evident in the use of relational and social aggression. The exclusively Hispanic Puerto Rican sample reported being more socially aggressive than the European American, mid-Atlantic sample. In contrast, the European American sample identified as being more relationally aggressive in their relationships than the Hispanic Puerto Rican sample. This distinction allows us to consider potential cultural differences in interpersonal relations in college-age females.     

English learners' achievement in mathematics and science: Examining the role of self-efficacy

The goals of the current study were twofold. The first goal was to describe levels of mathematics and science self-efficacy and achievement among a sample of students with varying levels of English language proficiency. The second goal was to examine the extent to which students' self-efficacy explains the relation between their English proficiency level and mathematics and science achievement. The sample consisted of 332 fifth graders (mean age = 10.46 years, SD = 0.38) and their 63 teachers in 20 schools. The student sample was linguistically diverse with parents reporting 22 different home languages. Based on district classification procedures, each student was coded into one of three English language proficiency level categories: English proficient-speaking students (English proficient), English Learner (EL) students who are reaching proficiency, yet are still being monitored (reaching proficiency), and EL students who are receiving English for Speakers of Other Languages services (ESOL; limited English proficient). Regression analyses indicated that students identified as limited English proficient consistently demonstrated lower achievement and self-efficacy across the content areas of mathematics and science as compared to their peers who were English proficient and reaching proficiency. In addition, students' self-efficacy partially explained the relation between limited English proficiency level and achievement for science, but not for mathematics. Results indicate that educators should consider variability in students' English proficiency levels as they select supports to promote both science achievement and self-efficacy. Findings also suggest promise for practices and programs that foster self-efficacy in addition to language and content skills.     

Short-term effects of grade retention on the growth rate of Woodcock-Johnson III broad math and reading scores

We investigated the effects of grade retention in first grade on the growth of the Woodcock-Johnson broad mathematics and reading scores over three years using linear growth curve modeling on an academically at-risk sample. A large sample (n = 784) of first grade children who were at risk for retention was initially identified based on low literacy scores. Scores representing propensity for retention were constructed based on 72 variables collected in comprehensive baseline testing in first grade. We closely matched 97 pairs of retained and promoted children based on their propensity scores using optimal matching procedures. This procedure adjusted for baseline differences between the retained and promoted children. We found that grade retention decreased the growth rate of mathematical skills but had no significant effect on reading skills. In addition, several potential moderators of the effect of retention on growth of mathematical and reading skills were identified including limited English language proficiency and children's conduct problems.     

A comparison of depression in children with and without mothers

The present research investigated depression in children with and without mothers. Differences in depression scores were tested by gender, socio-economic level, the cause of not having a mother, and the age of separation. The sample included 300 fourth and fifth grade elementary school children. Among them, there were 150 children (68 boys and 82 girls) who were living with their mothers and 150 (68 boys and 82 girls) who did not live with their mothers. Each group had an equal number of students (n=50) representing three different socio-economic levels (i.e., low, middle, high). Students in the sample came from 39 different public elementary schools. Children's ages varied between 10 and 12 years (M = 10.8, SD = .6). Teachers, administrators, and school counselors were asked to identify children without mothers. The children who were living with their mothers were randomly chosen. Results showed significant differences in depression between the two groups of children. Furthermore, there was a significant difference by socio-economic level. Depression of children without mothers is significantly associated with the cause of not having a mother and the age when the child was separated from the mother.     

The Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire: a measurement invariance examination among U.S. Anglos and U.S. Hispanics

The aim of this article is to assess the measurement invariance of the Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire (BVAQ) in U.S. Anglo (n = 490) and U.S. Hispanic ( n = 379) samples of college students. The BVAQ items demonstrated invariance of the factor loadings, the latent item intercepts, and unique factor variances. However, Hispanics had higher verbalizing scores and lower fantasizing scores on the latent variables. As a whole, the BVAQ requires additional testing and/or refinement for use with a Hispanic sample. Until such refinements, the authors recommend that the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 be used with U.S. Hispanic samples.     

Effects of cultural background on WAIS‐III and WMS‐III performances after moderate‐severe traumatic brain injury

The assessment of cognitive function in individuals of culturally and linguistically diverse background poses considerable challenges for the psychologist, particularly when English proficiency is limited. This study explored the effects of diverse cultural background and non‐Western educational background on Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale‐Third edition (WAIS‐III) and Wechsler Memory Scale‐Third Edition (WMS‐III) performances in moderate‐severe traumatic brain injury within an outpatient rehabilitation setting. Participants were aged 16–65 years and met careful selection criteria. IQ, index and age‐scaled subtest scores were compared across three groups: (a) English‐speaking background (n = 130), (b) culturally and linguistically diverse background and education completed in English (n = 33), and (c) culturally and linguistically diverse background and non‐English education (n = 33). Cultural backgrounds included people of Asian, European, Middle Eastern, African and Oceania origin. Results were that the English‐educated culturally and linguistically diverse group performed lower than the English‐speaking background group on some verbal WAIS‐III measures; effect sizes were small‐moderate. The non‐English‐educated culturally and linguistically diverse group performed lower than both groups on several WAIS‐III and one WMS‐III measure, with large effect sizes. Clinical implications included the need for caution in interpreting test scores to avoid diagnostic errors and the need for further development of valid assessment tools.     

Neighborhood Social Context and Individual Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposures Associated with Child Cognitive Test Scores

Childhood cognitive and test-taking abilities have long-term implications for educational achievement and health, and may be influenced by household environmental exposures and neighborhood contexts. This study evaluates whether age 5 scores on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R, administered in English) are associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure and neighborhood context variables including poverty, low educational attainment, low English language proficiency, and inadequate plumbing. The Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health enrolled African-American and Dominican-American New York City women during pregnancy, and conducted follow-up for subsequent childhood health outcomes including cognitive test scores. Individual outcomes were linked to data characterizing 1-km network buffers around prenatal addresses, home observations, interviews, and prenatal PAH exposure data from personal air monitors. Prenatal PAH exposure above the median predicted 3.5 point lower total WPPSI-R scores and 3.9 point lower verbal scores; the association was similar in magnitude across models with adjustments for neighborhood characteristics. Neighborhood-level low English proficiency was independently associated with 2.3 point lower mean total WPPSI-R score, 1.2 point lower verbal score, and 2.7 point lower performance score per standard deviation. Low neighborhood-level educational attainment was also associated with 2.0 point lower performance scores. In models examining effect modification, neighborhood associations were similar or diminished among the high PAH exposure group, as compared with the low PAH exposure group. Early life exposure to personal PAH exposure or selected neighborhood-level social contexts may predict lower cognitive test scores. However, these results may reflect limited geographic exposure variation and limited generalizability.     

Performance of children with epilepsy and normal age-matched controls on the WISC-III.

Research findings regarding the effects of childhood epilepsy on general intelligence have produced variable results. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of epilepsy, age of seizure onset, and Antiepileptic Drugs (AED) on intellectual ability as assessed by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd Edition (WISC-III; Wechsler, 1991). This study included children with epilepsy assessed with the WISC-III who achieved either a Full Scale, Verbal Scale, or Performance Scale IQ score >or= 70. A clinical sample of children diagnosed with epilepsy (n = 32) were age- and gender-matched with subjects from the normative standardization sample for the WISC-III, yielding a total sample of 64 subjects. Comparison using a MANOVA revealed significant differences across WISC-III Index standard scores (p = 0.0005) and subtest scaled scores (p = 0.0013), with control participants performing better than epileptic participants. Secondary analyses were also conducted considering monotherapy (n = 14) versus polytherapy (n = 11), and age of seizure onset (<6 years, n = 12; 6 > years, n = 15). MANOVA comparisons revealed no significant differences between groups across WISC-III Index standard scores.     

不同文章难度条件下文化特征类型熟悉度对阅读理解的影响

该研究考察了非英语专业具有不同英语语言水平学习者在不同难度条件下两种文化特征熟悉度对阅读理解的影响。研究发现：（1）语言水平高,或对材料背景熟悉的学习者可通过调用熟悉的文化背景知识帮助阅读理解,其得分均高于低水平,或对材料不熟悉的学习者;（2）在熟悉的文化背景条件下,当材料难度与学习者语言水平基本一致时,语言水平低的学习者也可较好地运用熟悉的文化背景知识帮助阅读理解。实验结果表明：文化特征的内容熟悉度和英语语言水平（或文章难度）对阅读理解起着重要作用,语言水平越高,作用越大。     

Effect of a 9-wk. after-school multiskills club on fundamental movement skill proficiency in 8- to 9-yr.-old children: an exploratory trial

This exploratory study examined the effects of a 9-wk. after-school multiskills club on fundamental movement skill proficiency in 8- to 9-yr.-old children. Two schools were randomly assigned to either a control (n = 15 children) or multiskill club (n = 19 children) condition. The multiskill club received 18 coaching sessions designed to improve fundamental movement skills. The control group followed normal routines. 7 skills were assessed using process-oriented measures with video analysis. Participation in the multiskill club yielded significant improvements in proficiency at posttest only in static balance, while potentially practically important improvements were observed in performance of the catch, throw, and kick skills. The after-school multiskill club offered a viable opportunity for movement skill acquisition, but any such programme would need to run for a longer duration to assess whether this type of activity could benefit all skills.     

Stand Tall to Protect Students: School Counselors Strengthening School Connectedness

In an urban sample of 5,595 students in Grades 7–12, the authors found that (a) personalized counseling services that were responsive to student needs enhanced school connectedness, (b) risk factors (e.g., poverty, mobility rates, limited English proficiency) were associated with lower school connectedness scores, and (c) responsive counseling services acted as a protective factor that reduced some of the negative effects of risk factors on school connectedness, and consequently, student success in academic and nonacademic areas.     

Reading,syntactic, orthographic,and working memory skills of bilingual Arabic-English speaking Canadian children

This study assessed the reading, language, and memory skills of 56 bilingual Arab-Canadian children age's 9-14. English was their main instructional language, and Arabic was the language spoken at home. All children attended a Heritage Language Program in Toronto where they were taught to read and write Arabic. The children were administered word and pseudo-word reading, language, and working memory tests in English and Arabic. The majority of the children showed at least adequate proficiency in both languages. There was a significant relationship between the acquisition of word and pseudo-word reading working memory, and syntactic awareness skills in the two languages. The poor readers in Arabic had lower scores on all linguistic tasks, except the visual task. There were no significant differences between bilingual English Arabic children and monolingual English-speaking children on the reading, language, and memory tasks. However, bilingual English Arabic children who had reading problems in English had higher scores on English pseudo-word reading and spelling tasks than monolingual English-speaking children with reading disabilities, probably because of positive transfer from the regular nature of Arabic orthography. In this case, bilingualism does not appear to have negative consequences for the development of language reading skills in both languages—Arabic and English—despite the different nature of the two orthographies.     

Three-year stability of WISC-R factor scores for black and white, female and male children classified as learning-disabled

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) test and retest scores for a homogeneous sample (N=322) of approximately equal numbers of black and white, female and male learning-disabled children were compared over 3 years for factor structure and factor structure stability. These analyses were also conducted with a subsample (N=229) of the total sample for whom Digit Span scores were available. The socioeconomic status of children in the sample was determined by parents' occupation. The results suggested that WISC-R factor structure was stable over 3 years. Two-and three-factor solutions were found for the total group; three factors were found when Digit Span was included in the analysis. Coefficients of congruence indicated factorial similarity between groups of black and white, female and male children classified as learning-disabled.     

Belief Reasoning and Emotion Understanding in Balanced Bilingual and Language-Dominant Mexican American Young Children

Belief reasoning and emotion understanding were measured among 102 Mexican American bilingual children ranging from 4 to 7 years old. All children were tested in English and Spanish after ensuring minimum comprehension in each language. Belief reasoning was assessed using 2 false and 1 true belief tasks. Emotion understanding was measured using subtests from the Test for Emotion Comprehension. The influence of family background variables of yearly income, parental education level, and number of siblings on combined Spanish and English vocabulary, belief reasoning, and emotion understanding was assessed by regression analyses. Age and emotion understanding predicted belief reasoning. Vocabulary and belief reasoning predicted emotion understanding. When the sample was divided into language-dominant and balanced bilingual groups on the basis of language proficiency difference scores, there were no significant differences on belief reasoning or emotion understanding. Language groups were demographically similar with regard to child age, parental educational level, and family income. Results suggest Mexican American language-dominant and balanced bilinguals develop belief reasoning and emotion understanding similarly.