Effects of dietary restraint, obesity, and gender on holiday eating behavior and weight gain

This investigation evaluated the impact of dietary restraint, relative weight, and gender on holiday eating behavior and weight gain. 65 Ss (31 men and 34 women) completed detailed food records for the 2 days before, the 4 days during, and the 2 days after the Thanksgiving weekend. Results indicated increased eating during the Thanksgiving holiday, with men eating more than women and the obese eating less than the nonobese. There was also a significant Total Restraint X Weight X Time interaction, with unrestrained normal-weight subjects behaving similarly to high-restrained overweight subjects over time. There was also a highly reliable Total Restraint X Sex X Time interaction. The most striking finding from this interaction was that high-restrained women displayed decreases in their dietary intake over time. Correlational analyses revealed that restraint scores were negatively associated with dietary intake over the 8-day period but were positively associated with weight gain. The implications for dieting, eating behavior, and energy balance are discussed.     

Disinhibited eating by resourceful restrained eaters

Restrained eaters who reported consistent use of a variety of self-control skills were expected to avoid disinhibited eating in a high-risk situation better than were restrained eaters, who reportedly used fewer self-control skills. Eighty women were selected as subjects on the basis of their scores on the Revised Restraint Scale and the Self-Control Schedule. A 2 x 2 design was used: Restraint (high, low) x Self-Control (high, low). Subjects participated in the usual "preload + taste-test" restraint paradigm. Restrained eaters who reported high self-control skills disinhibited their eating significantly more (not less, as expected) than all other groups.     

Dietary concern, weight fluctuation and weight status: further explorations of the restraint scale

The theory of restrained eating predicts that the Dietary Concern and Weight Fluctuation factors of the Restraint Scale should correlate with percentage overweight. However, Drewnowski, Riskey and Desor (1982) recently found that only Weight Fluctuation did in fact. The current study replicated that of Drewnowski el al. using a population which more closely resembled the one used in prior research on restraint. Correlations were computed between Restraint scores and both overweight and weight suppression, a second validational criterion with which indices of restraint should be related. Furthermore, since Drewnowski et al.'s results imply that it is Weight History rather than Dietary Concern which might be responsible for behavioral differences in restrained and unrestrained normals, the history of overweight among these two groups was examined. Contrary to Drewnowski et al., Dietary Concern was more strongly related to overweight than was Weight Fluctuation. Both factors correlated with weight suppression. Restrained normals had a much greater history of overweight than unrestrained normals, suggesting that previously observed similarities in behavior between restrained normals and obese individuals might be due to characteristics associated with the former group's prior overweight rather than with their current level of cognitive restraint.     

A comparison of obese and normal-weight families' sychological characteristics

Abstract

The present study assessed obese and normal-weight family members' perceptions of their nuclear family's social and environmental characteristics. Preliminary results support previous correlational and case studies that suggest obese families are dysfunctional. Results from the Family Environment Scale indicate that obese families perceive their family characteristics differently compared to normal-weight families or to a representative sample of families. Specifically, obese families perceive their homes as less cohesive, more conflictual, less interested in social and cultural activities, and less organized compared to normal-weight families. Obese parents also perceive themselves as more controlling and their families as less independent compared to nonobese parents.     

A comparison of the validity of three scales for the assessment of dietary restraint

The construct validity of Herman and Polivy's Restraint Scale (RS), the restraint factor of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R), and the restraint scale of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ-R) were investigated by relating these scales to self-reported mean caloric intake per day and to other measures associated with disordered eating and figure consciousness. A factor analysis showed that the three restraint scales measure different components of the restraint construct. A high score on the RS was closely related to consequences of mostly unsuccessful dieting, such as disinhibited eating and weight fluctuations, but not to successful overall caloric restriction in everyday life. High scores on the TFEQ-R and the DEBQ-R represented the more successful dieting behavior component of restraint. The three scales have in common a motivational component of restrained eating, including concerns about shape and weight, and desire for thinness.     

Restraint, weight loss, and variability of body weight

Restrained and unrestrained subjects (n = 24) were weighed daily for a 6-week period and again 6 months later in order to determine whether dietary restraint or relative body weight is the better predictor of weight variability. Restraint was a significantly better predictor of naturally occurring weight fluctuations than was relative body weight. Furthermore, the 2 factors of the Restraint Scale, Concern for Dieting and Weight Fluctuations, were both significant predictors of weight variability. We propose that exaggerated weight fluctuations are not a natural concomitant of higher body weight but possibly the consequence of a cycle of dieting and overeating, which seems to preclude actual weight loss.     

Film-induced negative affect triggers overeating in restrained eaters

We tested the effects of film-induced negative affect (i.e., exposure to a frightening film) in 60 women classified as either restrained or unrestrained eaters on the basis of their responses to the Revised Restraint Scale (Herman & Polivy, 1980). Exposure to the frightening film, in contrast to a neutral film, was associated with increases in anxiety, sadness, and anger. High restraint subjects exposed to the frightening film ate more than did equally restrained subjects exposed to a neutral film or low restraint subjects exposed to either film. Thus, negative affect triggered overeating among restrained eaters. Although unrestrained eaters exposed to the frightening film ate less than those who viewed the neutral film, this difference was not statistically significant. These results suggest that negative affect may prompt overeating in persons who attempt to restrict their caloric intake.     

Restrained eating: Mediator of gender differences on cognitive restructuring tasks?

This study examined the hypothesis that gender differences in eating restraint might mediate previously reported gender differences in cognitive restructuring tasks. Thirty female and 30 male college students matched for dietary restraint were administered two tests that had differentiated females from males and obese from normal-weight individuals in previous research: Luchins' water jar problems, and the Embedded Figures Test. On the water jar problems, use of the initial solution when no longer most efficient was greater for restrained eaters than for unrestrained eaters and no gender differences were found, supporting the hypothesis. On the Embedded Figures Test, males performed better than females, with restrained females tending to perform most poorly.Portions of this paper were presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, May 1985.     

Stability of Medical Students' Attitudes Toward Aging and Death

A representative sample from a nonclinical population was drawn to compare bingers and nonbingers across weight categories. Subjects were 112 women drawn from a cross-section of undergraduate classes at a large state university. Four groups were formed: obese bingers, obese nonbingers, normal-weight bingers (bulimics), and normal-weight nonbingers. Bingers, regardless of weight category, suffered higher levels of depression and anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem than nonbingers, regardless of weight category. Obese nonbingers were indistinguishable on these variables from normal-weight nonbingers, with both groups of nonbingers experiencing less emotional distress. Results support the position that the obese population should be conceptualized and treated as a diverse group with different psychological characteristics and needs.     

Restraint theory,locus of control and the situational analysis of binge eating

This paper examines the relationship between three traditions of explanations that have been applied in studies of binge eating: restraint theory, locus of control and the situational analysis of behaviour. The Restraint Scale (RS), Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-ELOCS), Weight Locus of Control Scale (WLOCS), Situations for Eating Scale (SES), Reasons for Eating Scale (RES) and the Binge Scale (BS) were administered to over 100 subjects. The factor structure of the RS and RES obtained in the present study were compared with those obtained in previous studies and revealed a close correspondence. Binge-eating subjects scored significantly higher than non-binge-eating subjects on the RS and its subscales, on externality as measured by the I-ELOCS, on the negative situations dimension of the SES, the RES and three of its subscales (Negative Emotions, Stimulation and Eating—A Habit). The need to take a number of aspects of both the individual and the situation into account when dealing with binge eating is discussed.     

Psychological stress and glucose metabolism in obese and normal-weight subjects: a possible mechanism for differences in stress-induced eating

Acute psychological stress has been found to impair the handling of a glucose load in normal-weight individuals and to produce a delay in gastrointestinal transit time. The present study utilized the same paradigm to compare 10 obese and 10 normal-weight subjects. All subjects participated in two counterbalanced sessions (stress and nonstress). At each session, subjects were fed a carbohydrate load, and glucose was measured 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min after the load. On nonstress days, subjects relaxed after the drink; on stress days, subjects participated in 30 min of competitive tasks. The stressor significantly delayed the glucose response in the normal-weight subjects but did not affect the glucose response in obese subjects. This finding may have implications for differences between obese and normal-weight individuals in stress-induced eating, possibly explaining the decreased consumption of normal-weight individuals during stress.     

Loneliness related to self-concept

The Differential Loneliness Scale and the UCLA Loneliness Scale were given to 30 persons attending a mental growth group (test group) and 36 adult students of psychology (the control group). Ages of the subjects ranged from 19 to 45 years. Self-concept was measured by Fitts' Tennessee Self-concept Scale and scored using both Clinical and Counselling forms. The first group showed greater loneliness, lower scores on physical self, and higher scores on moral-ethical self than the controls, and also had significantly lower scores on the neurosis scale and the defensive positive scale. A trend towards social maladjustment and personality disordered behavior was observed. Shyness and the typical introverted character for many Finns are discussed in connection with loneliness, social maladjustment, and lack of social skills.     

Palatability of food as a factor influencing obese and normal-weight children''s eating habits

The type and amount of food leftover from school lunches by normal-weight and obese elementary school children was examined for its similarity to the pattern reported by Krassner et al. (1979) in a study of normal-weight and obese college students. In this study 102 observations of children between the ages of 9–11, were taken over eight lunch periods in their school cafeteria. Overall, the normal-weight children left only slightly more food uneaten than did the obese children. However, when food palatability was examined, it was found that normal-weight children left over twice as much palatable food as did obese children. Children did not differ on the amount of unpalatable food left uneaten.

These results suggest that Krassner et al.'s observation that obese adults leave less food on their plates may be extended to children and, further, that like obese adults, obese children may be more influenced by the palatability of food than their normal-weight peers.     

Signal-detection analysis of recognition memory of obese subjects

Obese and normal-weight subjects were run on a series of recognition-memory tasks with low and high meaningful CVC trigrams. Subjects received feedback or no feedback regarding the appropriateness of their answers during testing for recognition memory. A signal-detection analysis was used to examine a relatively pure index of memory (d') as compared to response-bias factors [Ln (beta)]. No significant main effect on memory of obese and control subjects was noted although a significant interaction indicated that obese subjects' memory increases over trials in a differential fashion from normal-weight individuals with poorer performance among the obese after 3 trials. Feedback facilitated memory for both groups. Analysis of response criteria [Ln (beta)] showed no significant difference between groups. Highly meaningful trigrams had a significantly lower response criterion than low meaningful trigrams and there was a significant interaction of meaningfulness by trials. An interaction of feedback by meaningfulness was also present. Advantages of using a signal-detection analysis in memory studies comparing obese and normal weight subjects are discussed. Ramifications of the present data for the internality/externality hypothesis of obesity are also discussed.     

Interpersonal Dependency Correlates and Locus of Control Orientation Among Obese Adults in Outpatient Treatment for Obesity

Interpersonal dependency and locus of control orientation were studied in obese and nonobese samples. The Interpersonal Dependency Inventory (Hirschfeld, Klerman, Gough, Barrett, & Korchin, 1977) and the I-E Scale (Rotter, 1966) were administered to 106 obese adults in outpatient treatment for obesity. The I-E Scale was also administered to 97 nonobese control subjects. As predicted, the obese subjects were significantly more internally oriented than has been previously identified in obese populations. These findings challenge currently held assumptions about locus of control in obese groups. Although the obese and nonobese subjects maintained similar overall dependency scores, the obese subjects were more likely to show low levels of autonomy in comparison with the nonobese subjects. Interpersonal dependency and locus of control dimensions associated with obese conditions may serve as useful predictor variables influencing obesity treatment approaches and outcome.     

Establishing appropriate symptomatic control groups for the eating disorders

Two symptomatic control groups for the eating disorders were defined using high and low scores on the Dietary Restraint and Disinhibition scales of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire. Clinical subjects diagnosed with anorexia and bulimia nervosa were compared with these symptomatic control groups using measures of body weight, bulimic symptoms, and anorexic symptoms. In comparison to the high-Restraint/low-Disinhibition group, anorexic subjects scored higher on measures of eating disorder symptoms but not on Restraint and Disinhibition. The high-Restraint/high-Disinhibition group differed from bulimia nervosa subjects on measures of eating disorder symptoms but did not differ on Restraint and Disinhibition. The results suggested that a control group defined by high Restraint and low Disinhibition formed an appropriate control group for anorexia nervosa. For bulimia nervosa, the most appropriate control group was defined by high Restraint and high Disinhibition.     

Restraint,eating disorders and need to achieve in state and public school subjects

This paper examines the relationship of social class, need to achieve and restraint to attitudes toward food, eating and weight related behaviour. The Binge-eating questionnaire (BEQ), Restraint Scale (RS), Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) and Achievement Need Questionnaire (ANQ) were administered to 96 state school girls and 88 public school girls. The factor structure of the BEQ, RS and EDI obtained in the present study were compared with subdivisions of the scales suggested by previous studies and revealed a close correspondence. Public school subjects, who were predominantly from social classes 1 and 2, obtained significantly higher scores on the Binge-eating subscale of the BEQ and the Concern with Dieting and Weight Fluctuation subscales of the RS. State school subjects, who were predominantly from social classes, 3, 4 and 5, obtained significantly higher scores on the vomiting subscale of the BEQ and the Maturity Fears and Bulimia subscales of the EDI. There were no significant main effects of achievement need with the exception of the Perfectionism subscale of the EDI and no significant interactions. Possible reasons for the apparent social class variations in eating problems are discussed.     

Sexual Outcasts: The Perceived Impact of Body Weight and Gender on Sexuality1

A person's weight may be perceived as an important aspect of his or her sexuality and a significant determinant of his or her interpersonal sexual experiences. However, researchers interested in body weight and sexuality have focused exclusively on sexual disorders found in individuals with eating disorders; consequently, little is known about people's beliefs about weight and sexuality, despite the individual and interpersonal significance of such beliefs. Undergraduates received information about a male or female, obese or normal-weight stimulus person and then evaluated that person along several dimensions related to sexuality. Participants believed that an obese man's sexual experiences would be highly similar to those of a normal-weight man. However, participants viewed an obese woman as less sexually attractive, skilled, warm, and responsive, and perceived her as less likely to experience desire and various sexual behaviors than a normal-weight woman. In addition, participants believed that an obese woman was less sexually attractive, skilled, warm, and responsive than an obese man.     

Intrameal eating patterns of obese and nonobese humans.

Two experiments were conducted to test whether the intrameal eating patterns of obese and normal-weight human subjects are different. The first experiment was conducted in a laboratory under the pretense of a taste test. Eating was observed and data were compiled for seven parameters related to eating. The second experiment was conducted under field-study conditions with the subjects unaware of their participation. Few statistically significant differences in eating behavior were observed between obese and normal-weight subjects. These results are in contrast to the majority of previous work.     

Psychometric properties of eating disorder instruments in Black and White young women: internal consistency, temporal stability, and validity

Most of the major instruments in the eating disorder field have documented psychometric support only in predominantly White samples. The current study examined the internal consistency, temporal stability, and convergent and discriminant validity of a variety of eating disorder measures in Black (n = 97) and White (n = 179) female undergraduates. Internal consistency coefficients were good (>.76) for all measures for both groups. Temporal stability across 5 months was also adequate in both groups, but with evidence for dietary restraint and subjective binge eating being less stable in Black women (e.g., for the Restraint subscale of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire [TFEQ], r = .63 for Black women and r = .82 for White women). Scores on the bulimic symptoms and dietary restraint instruments converged and diverged in a theoretically consistent pattern. Findings suggest these eating disorder measures are reliable (internally consistent; temporally stable over 5 months) and that the bulimic symptom measures of the Bulimia Test-Revised, the Bulimia subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory, and the dietary restraint measures from the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire and TFEQ demonstrate convergent and discriminant validity in Black college women.