认知还是元认知：口语产生中舌尖效应的心理机制

舌尖效应(Tip-of-the-tongue, TOT)在口语产生领域存在认知和元认知两种研究视角。认知视角主要针对口语产生的词汇通达过程, 认为信息激活或提取不充分是TOT发生的主要原因。元认知视角则主要关注口语产生的元认知过程, 认为个体对目标词提取状态的监测引发了TOT。TOT的元认知过程不仅可以监测目标词的提取状态及词汇通达过程中相关信息的提取, 而且可以控制词汇通达过程, 使目标词在TOT发生后成功地提取出来。两种研究视角在TOT发生的认知机制、影响因素以及生理基础方面均存在分离。未来研究应该探讨TOT监测和控制口语产生的作用机制和生理基础, 关注汉语背景下TOT发生规律及其对口语产生年老化的积极影响。     

舌尖效应产生和解决的词汇提取年老化机制：两阶段范式研究

舌尖效应年老化机制受到语言特异性因素的影响。本研究把Stroop效应作为协变量,在统计分析控制个体抑制能力的基础上,采用两阶段范式考察舌尖效应产生和解决中词汇提取的年老化机制。结果发现：（1）老年人的舌尖效应产生率和语音提取缺陷均显著高于青年人,语义提取缺陷年龄差异不显著;（2）老年人的舌尖效应解决率和语音促进效应量均显著低于青年人;（3）语义启动影响老年人的舌尖效应解决,而对青年人没有影响。上述结果表明,舌尖效应产生和解决的年老化均与语音提取衰退有关,与语义提取衰退无关,支持语言特异性衰退的观点。     

汉语图画命名过程的年老化机制：非选择性抑制能力的影响

采用图画-词汇干扰任务考察和比较了青年人和老年人在汉语口语词汇产生中的干扰词频效应,以及非选择性抑制能力对两组人群干扰词频效应和图画命名潜伏期的影响。结果发现:无关干扰词的词频影响了青年人的图画命名过程,出现了干扰词频效应,这一效应更可能发生在反应排除阶段,且不受非选择性抑制能力的影响;相比而言,老年人中未出现干扰词频效应,这可能是由于老年人的音韵表征衰退导致其不能利用干扰词的词频信息,支持了口语产生认知年老化的传输不足假设。非选择性抑制能力影响了老年人的图画-词汇干扰任务中图画命名的潜伏期,非选择性抑制能力减弱,图画命名时间延长,表明一般性认知能力的衰退影响了语言产生过程。     

语言产生中词频效应老化的神经基础与时间进程

词频效应指语言产生中人们对高频词汇的加工比低频词汇更快更准确的一种现象, 它可能发生在语言产生中的不同阶段。对青年人和老年人词频效应的不同特点和加工机制进行比较, 可以考察语言产生的认知老化机制。通过语言产生理论可对词频效应的老化进行预测, 提出词频效应在个体发展和老化阶段的相对稳定性, 分析老化导致词频效应相关的神经基础和加工时间进程的改变。未来研究可进一步分离词频效应与习得年龄效应对语言产生老化的影响, 并扩展至神经退行性疾病患者中。     

为什么会出现“舌尖现象”?——TOT现象发生机制之争

舌尖现象(tip-of-the-tongue,TOT)是一种普遍发生的现象,但是发生TOT的对象、情景、机制等却是特殊和复杂的。因此,它引起了研究者的关注,尤其是在其产生机制上更是存在着很多争论。国外研究者提出了部分激活理论、传递缺陷理论、障碍物假说、神经网络模型、元认知理论等。但研究者大多都基于单一条件或情景来探讨TOT的产生,因此提出的理论的使用范围,解释广度等均有局限。关于TOT依然有许多疑惑,同时也存在值得探讨的课题。     

正常老化对视觉早期注意的影响——来自ERP的证据

选择性注意能够作用于视觉信息加工的不同阶段。各个注意阶段均受到老化过程的影响, 其中注意早期阶段的老化研究对于理解认知老化的发生机制有重要意义。本文系统地梳理了刺激前的注意预期阶段以及刺激后200 ms内的早期感知注意阶段的正常老年人和青年人ERP比较研究, 以探讨正常老化对视觉早期注意的影响。现有证据表明, 相对于青年人, 正常老年人：(1)多个早期ERP注意效应(包括注意预期ADAN, 早期空间注意N1, 以及特征注意SP和SN)在潜伏期上都存在显著延迟; (2)在振幅上, 不同ERP注意效应的老化表现存在差异：某些ERP成分(包括注意预期EDAN, 以及早期空间注意P1)的注意效应没有明显减弱, 而某些ERP成分(包括注意预期alpha, 早期空间注意N1, 以及特征注意SN)的注意效应受到老化调控; (3)一些注意效应(包括特征注意SP成分, 以及客体注意P1和N1成分)的目标增强机制保留, 而干扰抑制机制缺损。目前已有研究在老化对注意效应振幅的调控上还存在不一致, 这可能与研究的信噪比、任务难度、注意机制分离以及老年人的个体差异有关。未来研究应考虑这些因素以更好地探究正常老化对视觉早期注意的影响。     

口语产生中的认知年老化及其神经机制

综述了口语产生的认知年老化现象及其认知神经机制, 总结了年龄因素对口语产生各阶段的影响及认知机制, 主要从从舌尖效应、同音词的图片命名及其启动效应等方面进行了阐述。在此基础上阐述了关于口语产生认知年老化的理论：激活不充分假说、传递不足假说和抑制不足假说, 从不同角度对认知年老化进行了分析。总结了采用fMRI和ERP技术所进行的口语产生认知年老化过程的认知神经科学研究, 概括了其认知神经机制及其发生的时间进程, 重点阐述了舌尖效应发生的神经机制。最后, 从“认知年老化”和“口语产生”这两个研究领域, 对口语产生认知年老化的研究提出了展望。     

简单与复杂物理问题解决及状态元认知

本研究采用认知作业分析及问卷法,研究了中学生简单与复杂物理问题解决的表征机制及状态元认知结构。结果显示：(1)物理问题解决是对问题的表征状态不断转换的过程,其受认知主体信息的提取、转换、整合能力及状态元认知的影响;(2)中学生物理问题解决中的状态元认知主要由他的自我效能感、自我监测、策略系统三种成分构成;(3)复杂问题解决的关链是正确提取范畴性知识以形成对问题的深层表征。     

老年人与青年人阅读空格文本的注视位置效应

采用EyeLink2000眼动仪,以14名老年人和14名青年人为被试,探讨他们阅读空格汉语文本的注视位置效应.阅读材料分为正常无空格文本和词间空格文本两种.结果发现:(1)在阅读词间空格文本和正常无空格文本时,老年人与青年人都表现出单次注视的首次注视是位于词的中心,多次注视的首次注视是位于词的开头;(2)老年人阅读正常无空格文本时对词尾的注视概率显著低于词间空格文本,而青年人则没有差异.结果表明老年人与青年人在阅读空格文本时存在注视位置效应.     

任务切换的老化效应

采用任务线索范式(task-cueing paradigm),考察年龄对两个不同来源的切换损失的影响。实验一操控准备时间考察内源性切换损失,实验二操控首尾任务的异同考察外源性切换损失。以被试执行切换任务和重复任务的正确反应时为主要指标,结果发现:(1)在执行不同类型的任务时,老化效应极其明显,青年人反应速度普遍快于老年人,错误率普遍低于老年人;(2)内源性任务范式中重复任务和切换任务老化速度不一致,老化对切换任务影响更大,而外源性任务范式中CBA和ABA任务老化速度基本一致;(3)青年人和老年人在内源切换损失、外源切换损失上不存在显著差异。结果表明,整体上老年人的任务切换成绩差于年轻人,与外源性任务相比,内源性切换任务的成绩更易受老化的影响。     

Tip-of-the-tongue states reveal age differences in the syllable frequency effect

Syllable frequency has been shown to facilitate production in some languages but has yielded inconsistent results in English and has never been examined in older adults. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states represent a unique type of production failure where the phonology of a word is unable to be retrieved, suggesting that the frequency of phonological forms, like syllables, may influence the occurrence of TOT states. In the current study, we investigated the role of first-syllable frequency on TOT incidence and resolution in young (18-26 years of age), young-old (60-74 years of age), and old-old (75-89 years of age) adults. Data from 3 published studies were compiled, where TOTs were elicited by presenting definition-like questions and asking participants to respond with "Know," "Don't Know," or "TOT." Young-old and old-old adults, but not young adults, experienced more TOTs for words beginning with low-frequency first syllables relative to high-frequency first syllables. Furthermore, age differences in TOT incidence occurred only for words with low-frequency first syllables. In contrast, when a prime word with the same first syllable as the target was presented during TOT states, all age groups resolved more TOTs for words beginning with low-frequency syllables. These findings support speech production models that allow for bidirectional activation between conceptual, lexical, and phonological forms of words. Furthermore, the age-specific effects of syllable frequency provide insight into the progression of age-linked changes to phonological processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved).     

抑制对老年人舌尖现象的影响

抑制不足理论认为老年人抑制能力不足, 易受干扰信息的影响, 阻碍对目标词的检索, 故比年轻人有更多舌尖现象。实验1操纵抑制通达子功能探讨其在老年人舌尖现象中的作用, 采用2(干扰条件：有、无)×2(年龄组：老年、年轻)的混合设计, 相比于无干扰条件, 干扰条件下舌尖现象年龄差异变得更大, 表明老年人舌尖现象和通达功能有关。实验2操纵抑制删除子功能, 采用2(是否激活干扰：是、否)×2(年龄组：老年、年轻)的混合设计, 不激活干扰条件下舌尖现象年龄差异不显著, 而激活干扰条件下舌尖现象年龄差异显著, 舌尖现象随龄增多与删除功能不足有关。通达和删除功能不足是老年人舌尖现象增多的重要原因。     

口语产生中词频效应、音节频率效应和语音促进效应的认知年老化

采用图画-词汇干扰实验范式,考察了汉语口语产生过程中词频与音节频率效应、语音促进效应的认知年老化现象及其认知机制。结果发现,老年组的图画命名时间长于青年组,且老年组的词频效应和音节频率效应高于青年组,而语音相关效应低于青年组。老年组中词频和音节频率存在两因素交互作用,青年组则没有,这表明随着年龄增加,老年人的心理词典中不仅语义水平和音韵水平之间的联结强度变弱,而且信息之间的作用模式发生了变化。研究结果为激活不充分假设或传输不足假设提供了证据。     

Why a superman cannot help a tsunami: activation of grammatical class influences resolution of young and older adults' tip-of-the-tongue states

Young (aged 18-23), young-old (aged 61-73), and old-old (aged 75-89) adults saw general knowledge questions whose answers were designated target words. Participants responded that they knew, did not know, or were having a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state for the answer. After TOT states, participants saw a 5-word list in which 1 was a "prime" containing the target's first syllable and that shared or differed in part of speech from the target. The question was then presented again, and target retrieval was attempted. Results revealed age differences in resolution of TOT states as a function of the prime's grammatical class. Following different part-of-speech primes, young and young-old adults showed increased resolution of TOT states relative to phonologically unrelated words, whereas old-old adults did not. In contrast, old-old adults demonstrated decreased resolution of TOT states following same part-of-speech primes, whereas young and young-old adults' TOT resolution was unaffected. These findings are consistent with interactive activation theories of speech production in which phonology can influence lexical selection and also suggest an increased susceptibility to phonological competitors in the later stages of the aging process.     

Does priming specific syllables during tip-of-the-tongue states facilitate word retrieval in older adults?

This experiment investigated whether phonological priming of syllables helps resolve tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states in young and older adults. Young, young-old, and old-old adults read general knowledge questions and responded "know," "TOT," or "don't know" accordingly. Participants then read a list of 10 words that included 3 phonological primes corresponding solely to the first, middle, or last syllable of the target word. Young and young-old adults resolved more TOTs after first-syllable primes, but old-old adults showed no increase in TOT resolution following any primes. These results indicate that presentation of the first syllable of a missing word strengthens the weakened phonological connections that cause TOTs and increases word retrieval, but not for old-old adults who experience greater deficits in the transmission of priming across these connections.     

Do alternative names block young and older adults' retrieval of proper names?

This study evaluates whether tip of the tongue experiences (TOTs) are caused by a more accessible word which blocks retrieval of the target word, especially for older adults. In a "competitor priming" paradigm, young and older adults produced the name of a famous character (e.g., Eliza Doolittle) in response to a question and subsequently named a picture of a famous actor or actress depicting this character (e.g., Audrey Hepburn as Eliza Doolittle). Older adults produced more TOTs than young adults, but prior production of a related character name did not affect TOTs, although it did reduce incorrect responses. There were no age differences in knowledge of films and TV and thus the age-related increase in TOTs is not because older adults have more relevant knowledge. The findings are compatible with models in which alternate words are a consequence not a cause of TOT.     

Phonological priming effects on word retrieval and tip-of-the-tongue experiences in young and older adults

In a repetition priming paradigm, young and older participants read aloud prime words that sometimes shared phonological components with a target word that answered a general knowledge question. In Experiment 1, prior processing of phonologically related words decreased tip-of-the-tongue states (TOTs) and increased correct responses to subsequent questions. In Experiment 2, the priming task occurred only when the participant could not answer the question. Processing phonologically related words increased correct recall, but only when the participant was in a TOT state. Phonological priming effects were age invariant, although older adults produced relatively more TOTs. Results support the transmission deficit model that the weak connections among phonological representations that cause TOTs are strengthened by production of phonologically related words. There was no evidence that phonologically related words block TOT targets.     

The phenomenon of the tip of the tongue in aging

This paper presents new data on the tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon and its resolution in aging. 140 volunteers ranging from 19 to 82 years participated in an experiment using definitions about common names, proper names, adjectives and verbs to elicit TOTs. We studied the resolution of the TOTs introducing a free word-recall task and a priming task. Older adults experienced more TOTs than younger adults regardless of the level of vocabulary. Phonological priming, and not free recall of words, improved resolution for the older adults. The results are discussed in relation to the theory of the transmission deficit.