有时间压力下学习率对学习时间分配议程的影响:来自眼动的证据

利用眼动分析技术,通过设置不同难度和分值的计算项目,探讨了在有时间压力下学习者的学习时间分配。结果发现:(1)在首次项目选择上,学习者优先选择学习率最高的项目;(2)在学习过程中,学习者的项目选择次序也是根据学习率由高到低。总之,在学习时间分配上,如果需要权衡难度与分值,学习者会考虑单位时间的获益,也就是以学习率为议程的主要依据。研究不仅利用眼动分析技术证实了基于议程的学习时间分配模型,而且进一步揭示了学习率是设置学习时间分配议程的重要依据。     

项目难度与分值对自定步调学习时间的影响

为了探讨项目难度与分值对自定步调学习时间的影响及学习时间分配的内在机制。实验1a和实验1b分别检验项目难度与分值对自定步调学习时间的影响,发现学习者倾向于将更多学习时间分配到困难或高分值的项目上;实验2设置”难1分项目-中5分项目-易5分项目”和“难1分项目-中1分项目-易5分项目”两种情境,在前者中发现难1分项目与中5分项目的自定步调学习时间显著多于易5分项目,后者中发现难1分项目的自定步调学习时间显著多于中1分项目和易5分项目,表明了学习者在自定步调学习中存在权衡过程。     

难度与分值对高一学生选择停止、集中或分散学习的影响

选取50名高一学生,选用反义词对和人工词对两种学习材料,赋予学习材料不同的分值,探讨项目难度和分值对学习者集中学习或分散学习选择及其效果的影响,并通过问卷调查被试对不同学习方式的认识。结果发现:(1)只有44%的被试报告分散学习更有效,被试总体上也更多地选择了集中学习;(2)在困难项目上,分散学习比集中学习的效果更好;(3)被试对容易项目更多选择停止学习,对困难项目更少选择停止学习,特别是困难高分项目;对困难项目比对容易项目更多选择分散学习,而在困难与容易项目上,对集中学习的选择不存在显著差异。     

学习时间分配的基于议程调节模型*

作为学习时间分配研究热点的基于议程调节模型认为,学习者是在学习目标的指导下,建构并执行议程来进行学习时间分配。议程即学习计划,是学习时间分配的驱动力。该模型强调学习者在自我调节学习过程中有意识的进行着学习效益最大化的权衡决策来实现学习目标,包容了以往学习时间分配的经典理论。大量的新近研究支持了基于议程调节模型,并深入地探讨了议程驱动与习惯性反应之间的关系。 未来的研究应进一步考察学习时间分配权衡过程中的意识和无意识双加工机制,探讨个体变量对学习时间分配议程建构的权衡机制的影响,并在更加生态化的情境中考察学习时间分配议程建构的权衡机制。     

从风险决策中的多次博弈到单次博弈：量变还是质变?

诺贝尔经济学奖获得者Samuelson于1963年发现人们在单次和多次博弈条件下决策行为不一致。文章综述了两种博弈条件下人们决策行为的差异并质疑了这种差异的传统理论解释机制。描述或预测决策行为的风险决策理论其实只采用了一种评价法则—— 期望法则, 始终没有跳出“最大化”的窠臼。基于实验证据, 我们推测, 多次博弈时人们遵守了期望法则, 而单次博弈时人们所遵循的是非补偿性法则。从多次博弈到单次博弈, 不单单是一种博弈次数上的变化(量变), 而是代表了从期望法则(补偿性法则)到非补偿性法则两种策略之间的转变(质变)。最后, 文章介绍了单次、多次博弈问题在医疗、应急管理以及投资领域的体现, 并呼吁更多的研究者关注单次、多次博弈问题。     

测验理论的新发展:多维项目反应理论

多维项目反应理论是基于因子分析和单维项目反应理论两大背景下发展起来的一种新型测验理论。根据被试在完成一项任务时多种能力之间是如何相互作用的,多维项目反应模型可以分为补偿性模型和非补偿性模型两类。本文在系统介绍了当前普遍使用的补偿性模型的基础上,指出后续研究者应关注多维项目反应理论中多级评分和高维空间的多维模型、补偿性和非补偿性模型的融合、参数估计程序的开发和多维测验等值四个方面的研究。     

不同文章难度条件下文化特征类型熟悉度对阅读理解的影响

该研究考察了非英语专业具有不同英语语言水平学习者在不同难度条件下两种文化特征熟悉度对阅读理解的影响。研究发现：（1）语言水平高,或对材料背景熟悉的学习者可通过调用熟悉的文化背景知识帮助阅读理解,其得分均高于低水平,或对材料不熟悉的学习者;（2）在熟悉的文化背景条件下,当材料难度与学习者语言水平基本一致时,语言水平低的学习者也可较好地运用熟悉的文化背景知识帮助阅读理解。实验结果表明：文化特征的内容熟悉度和英语语言水平（或文章难度）对阅读理解起着重要作用,语言水平越高,作用越大。     

学习时间分配研究的新进展及展望

以往的学习时间分配研究主要关注项目难度的作用。Dunlosky等人(2009)基于任务奖励结构等因素对学习时间分配的影响,提出了基于议程调节模型。该模型认为,个体是在学习目标的指导下,建构并执行议程来进行学习时间分配。该模型突破项目难度驱动学习时间分配的传统理论,将议程视为学习时间分配的驱动力。未来研究还需关注议程建构过程和元认知监控关系等问题。     

自定步调学习时间的习惯性反应：来自眼动的证据

习惯性反应指学习者根据自身阅读习惯来进行学习时间分配,它通常由词对位置这一外部线索激发。研究运用眼动记录技术,采用Metcalfe范式探讨词对位置和难度对学习时间分配的影响,以检验自定步调学习时间的习惯性反应。结果发现：（1）在自定步调总学习时间上,学习者倾向于对难度越大的项目分配越多的学习时间;（2）在前期自定步调学习进程上,当词对位置为易-中-难条件时,学习者倾向于优先在容易项目上分配较多的学习时间,接着是中等难度项目,最后是困难项目;当词对位置为难-中-易条件时,结果相反。这说明学习者的自定步调总学习时间受项目难度驱动,而前期自定步调学习时间受习惯性反应影响。     

编码后奖赏影响基于议程的学习：奖赏预期和结果的作用

基于ABR模型考察奖赏预期和奖赏结果对不同难度词对记忆与元记忆的影响。结果发现：(1)限时学习条件下,奖赏结果促进不同难度词对记忆成绩和学习判断,奖赏预期仅提高简单词对的记忆成绩。(2)自定步调学习条件下,定时学习判断时奖赏结果仅影响学习判断;奖赏预期促进高难度词对的学习时间分配,从而提高记忆成绩和学习判断。(3)在自定步调学习时,奖赏预期超越难度成为影响学习时间分配的因素。以上结果表明,个体会综合奖赏预期、奖赏结果和难度构建学习议程,足够大的奖赏预期会超越难度成为议程构建的主导因素。但奖赏预期和奖赏结果对记忆成绩、学习时间分配和学习判断的影响受学习条件调节。     

When do learners shift from habitual to agenda-based processes when selecting items for study?

Learners presumably attempt to allocate their study time to maximize reward, yet in some contexts, their study choices are driven by reading biases that would not maximize reward. For instance, when presented with items in a horizontal array that are worth different values if correctly recalled, learners will often first select the leftmost item (i.e., a reading bias), even when it is associated with the lowest value. In four experiments, we investigated the degrees to which various factors cause learners to shift to agenda-based regulation. On each trial, participants were presented with three cues and a point value (1, 3, or 5) for each. The participants could select any cue for study (in which case, its target would be presented) in any order. In Experiment 1, participants either selected items for study under time pressure or were given unlimited time to select items. Not limiting selection time increased the likelihood that higher-valued items would be prioritized for study, but reading biases still influenced item selection. In Experiment 2, participants could select only one item per trial, and higher-valued items were prioritized even more for study, but not exclusively so. In Experiments 3 and 4, we ruled out a lack of motivation and inaccurate task beliefs as explanations for why participants would sometimes choose lower-valued items. The results demonstrate the influence of a pervasive reading bias on learners’ item selections, but as importantly, they show that a shift toward agenda use occurs when habitual responding cannot maximize reward.     

基于价值的议程对学习时间分配影响的眼动研究

通过对比不同梯度下, 分值激发的议程与习惯性反应作用一致、不一致条件中, 优先选择项目和学习时间的差异, 考察基于价值的议程对学习时间分配的影响及其动态过程。结果发现：(1)等分值条件下, 汉语为母语被试存在从左到右的习惯性反应。(2)分值梯度对基于议程的学习时间分配的有效性具有调节作用。小分值梯度(1分、5分)激发的议程能够克服习惯性反应对学习时间分配的影响, 但不能使被试建立起优先学习高价值项目的议程; 大分值梯度(1分、10分)能够克服习惯性反应对学习时间分配影响, 且能够使被试建立起优先学习高价值项目的议程。(3)基于议程调节的学习时间分配在时程和阶段上具有动态性和情境特异性。     

The influence of agenda-based and habitual processes on item selection during study

Research on study-time allocation has largely focused on agenda-based regulation, such as whether learners select items for study that are in their region of proximal learning. In 4 experiments, the authors evaluated the contribution of habitual responding to study-time allocation (e.g., reading from left to right). In Experiments 1 and 2, participants selected items for study from a 3-item array. In Experiment 1, pairs were ordered by learning ease from left to right or in the reverse order. In Experiment 2, pairs were in a column with the easiest item either in the top or bottom position. Participants more likely chose to study the easiest item first when it was presented in the prominent position of an array, but when the difficult item was in the prominent position, it was more often chosen first for study. In Experiment 3, a 3 × 3 array was used. In 1 group, the 3 easy items were in the left column and the 3 difficult ones were in the right column; in another group, these columns were reversed. Participants largely chose items in a top-down or left-to-right order. In Experiment 4, items were presented sequentially for item selection, with either the difficult items presented first (followed by progressively easier items) or in the reverse order. Participants could choose half the items for restudy, and they were more likely to choose items presented earlier in the list, regardless of presentation order. These and other outcomes indicate that both agenda-based regulation (in terms of using the region of proximal learning) and habitual responding contribute to people's selection of items for study.     

Salience drives overt selection of two equally relevant visual targets

In the present study, we investigated whether salience determines the sequence of selection when participants search for two equally relevant visual targets. To do this, attentional selection was tracked overtly as observers inspected two items of differing physical salience: one a highly salient color singleton, and the other a less salient shape singleton. Participants were instructed to make natural eye movements in order to determine whether two line segments contained within the two singletons were oriented in the same or in different directions. Because both singleton items were task-relevant, participants had no reason to inspect one item before the other. As expected, observers fixated both targets on the majority of trials. Critically, saccades to the color singleton preceded saccades to the less salient shape singleton on the majority of trials. This demonstrates that the order of attentional object selection is largely determined by stimulus salience when task relevance is equated.     

学习率的心理现实性及其对项目选择的影响

项目选择一直是元认知控制研究中的热点问题。本研究以不同难度和分值的计算题为实验材料,通过两个实验探讨学习率的心理现实性及其对项目选择的影响。实验1中,在不限时条件下,被试者需要完成不同难度的计算题并赋予不同分值。实验2中,在限时条件下,通过变化计算题的难度和分值设计了三种不同学习率的项目,被试只能选择其中一种项目来计算以获得更高的分值。研究表明：第一,当项目所用时间增多时,被试对该项目所赋分值就增大,而时间（难度）与分值的比例是不变的,即学习率是相同的;第二,被试倾向于选择学习率更高的项目来完成计算任务,而当学习率相同时,被试倾向于优先选择高分困难项目。研究证实了学习率的心理现实性,并确定了学习率是项目选择的主要依据。     

Selection of strategies for narrowing choice options: Antecedents and consequences

This study investigates the antecedents (task and decision maker characteristics) and consequences (set size and decision quality) of prescreening strategy selection. In Experiment 1 we investigated which strategy, inclusion or exclusion, is more natural for narrowing choices in tasks with a single correct answer; about 70% of the participants selected exclusion. Experiment 2 directly contrasted correct answer tasks with personal judgment tasks, using the same foils for the two tasks. Participants were more likely to use exclusion for items with a correct answer than for personal judgments. In Experiment 3, participants could choose different strategies for different items and rated the difficulty of each item. The greater the perceived difficulty of an item, the more likely participants were to choose an exclusion strategy. In all three experiments exclusion led to larger set sizes, across task type and experimental design. There were no differences in decision quality as a function of strategy selection after correcting for set size. Individual differences based on personality inventories were not found to be good predictors of strategy selection, but had moderate effects on set size for personal judgment tasks. Results are discussed in terms of a status quo bias for adding or deleting options from an initial reference frame.     

项目分值对学习时间分配的影响：一种动态的过程

摘 要 研究考察了不同学习时段上,项目分值对学习时间分配的影响。结果发现: (1)分值的主效应显著,被试会选择更多的高分值项目学习, 且在高分值项目上分配更多的学习时间; (2)分值与学习时段存在交互作用,被试首先学习高分值项目,随后逐渐将学习重心转向中等分值项目,最后在临近测试前重点重学高分值项目。结果表明：学习时间分配是动态变化的,个体为了尽可能实现学习目标会在学习过程中不断调整所建构的议程。     

Metacognitive control in self-regulated learning: Conditions affecting the choice of restudying versus retrieval practice

In two experiments, learners studied word pairs one or two times and took a final cued recall test. They studied each pair upon its initial presentation and decided whether they would restudy it later, take a practice test on it later (retrieval practice), or forego all further practice with the pair. Whether learners preferred restudying or testing depended upon conditions. Regardless of whether practice tests were followed by feedback, they chose to take practice tests relatively more often when items were easy and the lag or spacing interval between the first and second occurrence was short, whereas they chose to restudy relatively more when items were hard and the lag was long. That is, they preferred testing under conditions in which successful retrieval on the practice test was likely. In Experiment 2, we varied the number of points each item was worth if recalled on the final test. A high point value led to a marked increase in both the preference for testing when the lag was short and the preference for restudying when the lag was long. Results support the hypothesis that learners appreciate at some level that retrieval practice can be a more effective learning strategy than restudying. However, they appear to believe that successful retrieval is necessary to reap the benefits of retrieval practice. As a consequence, their tendency to choose testing is influenced by conditions (item difficulty and spacing interval) that affect the likelihood of successful practice-test retrieval.     

CD-CAT初始阶段项目选取方法

CD-CAT是CDA同CAT的相结合的产物,适用于课堂教学,是教师补救教学、学生自我学习的重要工具。作为CD-CAT重要组成部分的初始阶段项目选取方法是影响测验判准率的重要因素。本文基于现有研究和CDA的项目区分度提出了四种新的初始阶段项目选取方法:CTTID法、CDI法、CTTIDR*法和CDIR*法。通过模拟研究发现,在定长的CD-CAT下,题库质量是HD-HV下,初始阶段结束时,CTTIDR*法的PCCR比现有的T阵法高了.2999,比PWKL高了.1707,其它题库下趋势相同。整个测验结束时CTTIDR*法的判准率仍然是最高的。在变长的CD-CAT下,最大后验概率大于.7、.8、.9下,CTTIDR*法的被试平均测验长度比T阵法分别缩短了2.6170、2.2347、1.7470道题。