Why Hope is not a Moral Virtue: Aquinas's Insight

There is a growing consensus among philosophers that hope is a moral virtue: the virtuously hopeful person experiences the right amount of hope for the right things. This moralization of hope presents us with a puzzle. The historical consensus is that hope is a passion and hope is a theological virtue, not a moral virtue. Thomas Aquinas, the philosopher who wrote most extensively on hope, offers an explanation for why hope is not a moral virtue. The aim of this paper is argue that Aquinas is right in thinking that hope is not a moral virtue. 1     

Hope and dysphoria: the moderating role of defense mechanisms

It was hypothesized that the adaptive value of hope cognitions would be dependent upon the quality of an individual's defense style. Undergraduate students completed measures of hope, defense mechanisms, and dysphoria in two studies. As predicted, defense mechanisms significantly moderated the relation between hope and dysphoria. In addition, both hope and defense mechanisms predicted dysphoria as main effects. Individuals who had low hope and an immature defense style had particularly high levels of dysphoria. Low hope was not maladaptive for individuals with a mature defense style, suggesting that a subtype of low hope ("defensive hopelessness") may exist that is analogous to defensive pessimism. Individuals with high hope had low levels of dysphoria regardless of defense style. Overall, the present study suggests that an integration of psychodynamic and cognitive perspectives on hope may be productive.     

Treating idealized hope and hopelessness

Hope is understood as being derived from a sense of well-being or a good-object feeling. From object relational and self-psychology perspectives, the author examines variations of hope, from hopelessness through idealized and malignant idealized hope to mature hope. Looking at idealized hope from both progressive and regressive positions, the author studies a case that has a dominant feature of regressive or malignant idealized hope. How group therapy plays a transformational role in addressing the issue of malignant idealized hope and in establishing a healthy sense of hope is developed.     

Holding hope and hopelessness: therapeutic engagements with the balance of hope

Hope and hopelessness are coexisting and powerful experiences in the human condition. The dynamics of hope and hopelessness within intimate relationships are complex, and individual and family experiences of hope and hopelessness are embedded within historical contexts and wider social processes. This article rests on a relational set of understandings about hope and hopelessness, and offers a dual exploration. It focuses first on the complexities of the patterns of hope and hopelessness within families, and then on the complexities of the therapist's relationship to hope and hopelessness and the family's experience. Orienting to the balance of hope in constellations of hope and hopelessness provides one compass point of therapeutic practice. Reflective practice enables the use of the therapist's involvement in the therapeutic relationship, and helps the therapist to witness the coexistence of hope and hopelessness in a way that nurtures hope and emotionally holds both hope and hopelessness.     

Placing hope in self and others: Exploring the relationships among self-construals,locus of hope,and adjustment

Traditional hope theory is dominated by an individualistic assumption wherein the self is considered as the focal agent of goal attainment. However, in collectivist cultures more relational dimensions of hope also need to be considered. The locus of hope dimension (internal vs. external locus) was added to the traditional hope theory in order to capture both individualistic and collectivist types of hope. Hope could either be anchored on oneself (internal locus) or on significant others (external locus). External locus could further be divided into family, friends, and spiritual hope. There is still a dearth of research on the external locus of hope, with most of the previous studies focusing on the internal locus. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine how internal and external loci of hope could predict various indices of psychological adjustment. We also examined how individual differences in self-construals would predict locus of hope. Results among the Chinese university students indicated that independent self-construal was positively associated with the internal locus of hope, while interdependent self-construal was positively associated with the external locus of hope. Internal locus and external locus of hope related to family and friends were positively associated with adjustment, but spiritual hope was not. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Fundamental Hope and Practical Identity

This article considers the question ‘What makes hope rational?’ We take Adrienne Martin's recent incorporation analysis of hope as representative of a tradition that views the rationality of hope as a matter of instrumental reasons. Against this tradition, we argue that an important subset of hope, ‘fundamental hope’, is not governed by instrumental rationality. Rather, people have reason to endorse or reject such hope in virtue of the contribution of the relevant attitudes to the integrity of their practical identity, which makes the relevant hope not instrumentally but intrinsically valuable. This argument also allows for a new analysis of the reasons people have to abandon hope and for a better understanding of non-fundamental, ‘prosaic’ hopes.     

Terror of Hope: the Integration of Attachment Theory and Womanist Theology

Hope functions as a potential coping mechanism for individuals who find themselves in stressful or difficult life situations, whether going through a personal grievance or experiencing the pain of systemized oppression. In recent history the study of hope in psychology and theology has grown and become prominent in each field. These forms of hope are often understood in two predominating categories, one which simplifies it to optimism or the other which relegates it to the future. The first understanding of hope, which I refer to as optimistic hope, distills hope into individualistic motivations with goal-setting for the future; individual progression. The second understanding of hope, which I refer to as eschatological hope, pushes hope to the edge of escapism into the next life. However, there is a third type which is influenced by womanist theology—complex hope. By using the work of womanist theologian A. Elaine Brown Crawford, Hope in the Holler and attachment theory, I attempt to show the potential risk and connection between optimistic hope and eschatological hope with insecure attachment types, and complex hope with secure attachment. Then by using the psychological model of self-development, I offer how one might develop mature complex hope in adolescence and adulthood. Lastly, I give a practical application of how one applies this method in their own situation, specifically as a minister or church leader.     

The positive contributions of hope to maintaining and restoring health: An integrative,mixed-method approach

A link between hope and physical well-being has long been suspected. To shed further light on this issue, an integrative theory of hope was used to design three health-related studies. In studies one and two, an integrative hope scale was used. In study one, greater hope was associated with depth of commitment to a healthier diet and regular exercise. In study two, the integrative hope scale was associated with a wider array of health behaviors as compared to a standard goal-oriented hope scale. In study three, a hope-centered content analysis of testimonies provided by long-term breast cancer survivors revealed a strong reliance on attachment and spirituality, dimensions typically neglected in psychological studies of this [hope] construct. An integrative approach to hope offers a framework for further research on hope and health as well as a blueprint for developing positive interventions to sustain and restore physical well-being.     

Hope Against Hope in Cancer at the End of Life

Hope has many facets to it in the context of cancer. This article outlines an instrumental case study for a patient with aggressive lymphoma who rapidly deteriorated to the point of dying. How her and her family’s hope was managed is outlined here from various perspectives. Interviews were carried out with the patient’s family, medical consultant-in-charge (attending physician) and nurses caring for her at the end of life. The findings outline the transition from hope for cure to hope for a good death and the role that the patient and family’s Christian hope played in this. Religiosity and spirituality of hope in terms of Christian hope is explored from the theological perspective. Practical aspects of care in the face of changing hope are discussed. Conclusions are drawn about reframing hope in a changing clinical situation with reference to theories of hope. The importance of acknowledging hope, coping, spirituality and religiosity, especially at end of life, is emphasised.     

Giving hope a sporting chance: Hope as distinct from optimism when events are possible but not probable

Popular hope theories treat hope as an expectancy-based construct, with individuals more hopeful the greater their perceived likelihood of success. Consequently, the distinction between hope and other expectancy-based concepts (e.g., optimism) is unclear. The present research aims to identify the unique nature of hope, suggesting hope is invoked in particular when expectations of positive outcomes are low. As long as there is a possibility of those outcomes eventuating, individuals highly invested in them are more likely to hope; but with greater probability hope tends to align with optimism. In Study 1, for supporters of bottom-tier football teams strongly invested in the hoped-for outcome of their team winning, hope’s relationship with likelihood was cubic, accelerating with mere possibility; contrastingly, for optimism the relationship was linear. Study 2 replicated these findings for voters’ hope in state election outcomes. Hope is distinct from optimism and positive expectation; hope is tapped into when odds are low yet individuals are highly invested in the outcome.     

The influence of between and within-person hope among emergency responders on daily affect in a stress and coping model

This study reports on daily hope, coping, stress, and affect among 84 fire service members who completed a 21-day diary. Multilevel modeling showed that between-person hope was related to higher positive affect. Three-way interactions were found for within-person hope, stress, and daily coping in the prediction of daily affect. When under high stress and if low in hope, more emotion–expression coping predicted higher next day positive affect whereas if high in hope, more problem-focused coping predicted more positive affect. Within-person hope, stress, and emotion–expression coping interacted to predict negative affect. Findings for the prediction of negative affect necessitate further research to determine if the nature of coping under low hope and low stress is qualitatively distinct from high hope states.     

The Dark Night of Hope

This essay discusses the nature of hope and despair, and the difficulties of responding to the aged who have nothing left .. to hope for. Based in pan on the writings of Gabriel Marcel, it suggests that one can hope when reasons for doing so are insufficient or lacking. It characterizes this kind of hope, absolute or unconditional hope, as a mystery, and suggests that to respond to the failing aged we must put aside efforts to find reasons to hope in order to participate in its mystery. The essay challenges the idea that hope is a private, isolated act of the will and insists that it always occurs between persons.     

Hope as an irreducible concept

I argue for a novel answer to the question “What is hope?”. On my view, rather than aiming for a compound account, i.e. analysing hope in terms of desire and belief, we should understand hope as an irreducible concept. After criticizing influential compound accounts of hope, I discuss Segal and Textor's alternative of describing hope as a primitive mental state. While Segal and Textor argue that available developments of the standard definition do not offer sufficient conditions for hope, I question the deep‐seated idea that desire and belief are even necessary conditions for hope. My suggestion is that we should take seriously the fact that we hope in a great variety of ways and should question the search for elements that are common to all cases. A promising alternative follows the Wittgensteinian idea that cases of hope are related in terms of family resemblance, i.e. are multiply realizable on the ontological level while falling under the non‐definable concept of hope.     

Hope and Flourishing in an Iranian Adults Sample: Their Contributions to the Positive and Negative Emotions

The this study was purposed to examine the validity of dispositional hope, state hope, and flourishing measures, to investigate the relationships between hope, flourishing and emotions, and to explore the roles of gender, age, ethnicity, marital status, and the level of education on these constructs in an Iranian sample. Participants included 300 individuals (15–80 years old) that randomly selected from Eghlid city in the north of Fars province, Iran. A demographic questionnaire and four self-rating inventories were used in this study. The confirmatory factor analysis indicated a one-dimensional structure for dispositional hope, state hope and flourishing constructs in this sample. Dispositional hope, state hope, and subjective flourishing constructs were positively and negatively related to positive and negative emotions. The level of education showed the significant role on state hope and flourishing. State hope and subjective flourishing explained 14 and 8 % of variances in positive emotions and negative emotions respectively.     

Uncertainty,Belongingness, and Four Needs for Meaning

Hope is defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways. The adult and child hope scales that are derived from hope theory are described. Hope theory is compared to theories of learned optimism, optimism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Higher hope consistently is related to better outcomes in academics, athletics, physical health, psychological adjustment, and psychotherapy. Processes that lessen hope in children and adults are reviewed. Using the hope theory definition, no evidence is found for "false" hope. Future research is encouraged in regard to accurately enhancing hope in medical feedback and helping people to pursue those goals for which they are best suited.     

Understanding the role of hope in counselling: Exploring the intentional uses of hope

In this paper we look at various conceptual models of hope and research evidence for the integral role that hope plays in counselling. We recognize hope as a dynamic process during which counsellor and client interact in ways that can be mutually influencing and we review research that explores this reciprocal process. A model for the intentional use of hope in counselling that recognizes both implicit and explicit approaches is offered. Metaphors for hope-work that position and re-position both counsellor and client in ways that may foster hope are explored. Finally, we provide suggestions for initiating conversations in which hope can be an explicit therapeutic focus.     

The role of hope in conflict management and relational maintenance

Rooted in hope theory, this study examined how dispositional and relationship‐specific hope influence communication in romantic relationships. In Study 1a, dispositional hope was positively associated with active and constructive conflict responses and negatively associated with passive and destructive conflict responses. In Study 1b, dispositional hope was mainly a positive predictor of active and constructive responses. Hope was also found to predict certain relational maintenance behaviors. Study 2 then examined the influence of hope in specific relational conflict episodes. Dispositional and relationship‐specific hope predicted unique variance in conflict goals and styles. High‐ relative to low‐hope individuals reported more prorelationship goals and fewer hostility‐domination goals. They also reported greater integrative problem solving and less personal attacking, withdrawal, and third‐party assistance.     

Using Hope in the Counseling Process

This article presents a framework for the development of hope in the counseling relationship. Although hope has often been viewed as an impediment to growth, the authors believe that realistic hope is an effective tool in a counseling relationship. The authors also examine the role of the counselor in the formulation of hope.     

Hope, defense mechanisms, and adjustment: implications for false hope and defensive hopelessness

Two studies replicated and expanded an earlier finding that defense style plays a crucial role in the relation between hope and dysphoria (Kwon, 2000). Lower hope and higher defense style immaturity were each associated with greater dysphoria, depression proneness, and maladjustment. Individuals with low hope and low defense immaturity did not have poor outcomes, supporting the existence of a subtype of low hope (defensive hopelessness) that may have adaptive value. The combination of high hope and high defense immaturity was not associated with maladaptive outcomes, arguing against the false hope construct. Additionally, the findings remained after controlling for levels of anxiety. Thus, it appears that the results are not attributable to general distress or negative affectivity. Finally, domain-specific hope was shown to correlate most strongly with matching areas of adjustment, providing evidence for the validity of the construct.     

Examining Hope as a Transdiagnostic Mechanism of Change Across Anxiety Disorders and CBT Treatment Protocols

Hope is a trait that represents the capacity to identify strategies or pathways to achieve goals and the motivation or agency to effectively pursue those pathways. Hope has been demonstrated to be a robust source of resilience to anxiety and stress and there is limited evidence that, as has been suggested for decades, hope may function as a core process or transdiagnostic mechanism of change in psychotherapy. The current study examined the role of hope in predicting recovery in a clinical trial in which 223 individuals with 1 of 4 anxiety disorders were randomized to transdiagnostic cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), disorder-specific CBT, or a waitlist controlled condition. Effect size results indicated moderate to large intraindividual increases in hope, that changes in hope were consistent across the five CBT treatment protocols, that changes in hope were significantly greater in CBT relative to waitlist, and that changes in hope began early in treatment. Results of growth curve analyses indicated that CBT was a robust predictor of trajectories of change in hope compared to waitlist, and that changes in hope predicted changes in both self-reported and clinician-rated anxiety. Finally, a statistically significant indirect effect was found indicating that the effects of treatment on changes in anxiety were mediated by treatment effects on hope. Together, these results suggest that hope may be a promising transdiagnostic mechanism of change that is relevant across anxiety disorders and treatment protocols.