初中生同伴圈子的发展及其对合作倾向、预期和行为的影响

在社会化过程中,同伴圈子不仅决定儿童青少年的交往范围和互动质量,而且影响其心理发展和社会适应。本研究从苏州市某初级中学选取768名初一学生进行了为期一年的追踪,采用社会认知地图、合作倾向评定量表和公共物品困境实验范式测查了同伴圈子、合作倾向、预期与合作行为,运用多层线性模型技术（Two-level HLM）探讨同伴圈子的合作水平对个体合作水平的影响。结果发现：（1）女生圈子数量最多而规模最小,男女混合圈子规模最大而数量最少;跨地域圈子数量最多且规模最大;（2）女生圈子最为稳定,男女混合圈子最不稳定;（3）在混合性别圈子中,个体的合作预期与行为更容易随着圈子合作预期水平的提高而增强;而在单性别圈子中,个体的合作预期与行为更容易随着圈子合作行为水平的提高而增强。结论：初中生同伴圈子在性别上具有同质性,女生圈子多且稳定;第一年单性别和混合性别圈子的合作倾向、预期和行为水平对第二年个体的合作水平产生了不同影响,即不同性别圈子对个体的影响模式存在差异。     

社会困境中合作行为的阶层差异：自我与他人的双重视角

为了探究个体自身与他人的社会阶层对个体在社会困境中合作行为的影响及其作用机制,本研究通过问卷和实验研究来考察自身阶层的行为效应、互动对象阶层的调节效应以及信任有中介的调节作用。研究发现：（1）低阶层者倾向于比高阶层者表现出更多的合作行为;（2）感知到的互动对象阶层对不同阶层个体的合作行为存在显著的调节效应;（3）个体对互动对象的信任水平（即对他人合作行为的预期）对此调节效应起到中介作用。     

公共物品困境中自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的影响

本研究分别操纵被试稳定的权力（实验1）和不稳定的权力（实验2）,并与不同权力个体进行公共物品困境任务,以考察了自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的交互作用及其权力稳定性在其中的作用。结果发现,在权力稳定情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平低于低权力组和控制组,而在权力不稳定的情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平高于低权力组。无论权力稳定与否,与低权力同伴合作时,低权力者的合作水平均显著高于与高权力同伴合作时。     

公共物品困境中自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的影响

本研究分别操纵被试稳定的权力（实验1）和不稳定的权力（实验2）,并与不同权力个体进行公共物品困境任务,以考察了自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的交互作用及其权力稳定性在其中的作用。结果发现,在权力稳定情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平低于低权力组和控制组,而在权力不稳定的情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平高于低权力组。无论权力稳定与否,与低权力同伴合作时,低权力者的合作水平均显著高于与高权力同伴合作时。     

同伴特点如何影响人们的合作与冲突行为?

人类的生存繁衍依赖于人们之间的相互合作,合作与冲突行为的研究近年来成为心理学的研究热点。本研究通过实验程序操纵Chicken Game中博弈同伴的特点,考察个体在社会困境中面对不同特点同伴时的合作行为。结果发现：(1)同伴道义论组和功利论组总和解率没有显著差异,同伴竞争组和合作组的总和解率也没有显著差异。(2)在与道义论以及合作型的同伴互动时,个体的行为没有明显受到上次博弈反馈的影响。(3)当同伴为功利论时,相比于上次博弈个体选择和解而同伴选择进攻,双方都选择和解时个体在当前博弈中更倾向于和解;(4)在同伴竞争组中,相比于上次博弈个体选择进攻而同伴选择和解,双方都选择和解时被试在当前博弈中会更倾向于和解。实验结果表明个体在博弈任务中会受到同伴特点的影响,并且同伴在博弈中的行为特点的影响更为显著。本研究从同伴特点来考察个体的合作行为,揭示了影响个体博弈行为的一种因素。     

学生学业和行为特征如何影响教师支持？来自个体和圈子层面的证据

教师支持是师生关系的重要指标,由教师和学生共同建构;学生的学业和行为特征会影响教师支持,但是以往研究主要关注学生个体特征的影响,极少考察学生所在小群体的作用。本研究以个体和其所在圈子的学业成就、亲社会行为、攻击行为为特征,考察其对教师支持的影响,结果发现：（1）个体的学业成就积极预测后续教师支持的增加;（2）在高学业成就圈子中,个体学业成就的提高能够预测教师支持的增加,而在低学业成就圈子则不能;（3）与男生相比,在低亲社会圈子中的女生获得的教师支持更少,而在高亲社会圈子中的女生则能够获得比男生更高的教师支持。     

特质感恩与状态感恩对初中生合作水平的影响

为探究感恩对初中生合作水平的影响,本研究采用追踪调查与实验相结合的方法,通过两个研究分别探究了特质感恩与内在的合作倾向,状态感恩与外在的合作行为之间的关系。结果发现：（1）初中女生的特质感恩、人物取向感恩显著高于男生;初一下的合作倾向显著低于初一上、初二上时期;（2）初中生的特质感恩水平能显著正向预测合作倾向,状态感恩的唤起会增加公共物品困境中的合作行为。     

青少年儿童不爱社交、同伴排斥和同伴侵害的交叉滞后分析

本研究采用班级戏剧和同伴提名对初中一年级766名学生进行了3年的追踪研究,采用交叉滞后设计,考察同伴排斥、同伴侵害和不爱社交之间的相互预测关系。结果表明：（1）不爱社交、同伴排斥和同伴侵害都表现出较高程度的稳定性;（2）早期同伴排斥可以预测随后的同伴侵害,早期同伴侵害也可以预测随后的同伴排斥,但这两种作用模式都受到性别的调节;（3）从总体上来说,早期同伴侵害影响个体随后的不爱社交倾向,但这种关系模式受到性别的调节。对女生来说,初一的同伴侵害影响初二的不爱社交;对男生来说,早期同伴侵害对随后的不爱社交没有显著的预测作用。本研究结果表明,同伴侵害不仅对同伴排斥产生较大的影响,同时可能导致女生对社会交往变得越来越冷漠,对人际关系产生长期影响。     

合作指数与社会距离对合作行为的影响

利用囚徒困境范式,考察了合作指数CI（0.1~0.9）与社会距离（亲密、陌生）对个体合作行为的影响。结果发现,社会距离和合作指数均会对合作行为产生影响,两者的交互效应不显著;合作率会受到合作指数的促进作用,但不会随合作指数的增高立即增长;在CI = 0.1~0.9这9个水平下,亲密被试间的合作率均显著高于陌生被试间的合作率。这一结果说明,合作指数对合作行为的促进作用存在阈值;社会距离缩小可促进个体的合作倾向增强,并更快地达到合作水平;合作指数与社会距离相互独立地影响合作行为。     

小学四、五年级儿童同伴团体的特征及其对学业成就的调节作用

运用社交认知绘图（SCM）、班级戏剧量表与同伴提名等方法调查了处于同伴团体形成关键期的小学四、五年级学生294人,以考察同伴团体诸变量对个体学业成就与社会行为、同伴接纳／拒绝之间关系的影响。结果表明：（1）同伴团体在小学四、五年级尚处于初步形成期,其密度和中心势均随年级升高而提高;（2）性别、学业成就和社会行为是影响同伴团体形成的主要因素;（3）个体学业成就对同伴接纳与亲社会行为具有正向预测作用,对同伴拒绝与退缩行为具有负向预测作用;（4）团体密度和团体学业成就在同伴接纳与个体学业成就之间关系中起正向调节作用,团体中心势具有负向的调节作用;团体学业成就对亲社会行为与个体学业成就之间的关系具有正向调节作用。     

中小学生人际信任、成就动机及其与合作倾向的关系研究

目的：旨在揭示中小学儿童的人际信任、成就动机水平及其与合作倾向之间的关系。方法：运用马基量表、人际信任量表、成就动机量表和合作倾向评价表对553名3-8年级学生进行测查。结果：1,初中男女生在人际信任水平上出现明显分化。2,男生追求成功的动机和避免失败的动机随年龄增长出现下降趋势,女生追求成功的动机下降,避免失败的动机上升。3,追求成功的动机与合作倾向有显著正相关。结论：与人际信任水平相比,成就动机在儿童合作倾向的评价中发挥了更大的作用。     

Effects of peer reporting on cooperative play and aggression of kindergarten children

Kindergarten children were given opportunities to report to their class during “sharing time” the cooperative or friendly behaviors of their peers which had occurred during the day. Children whose cooperative behavior was reported by a peer received a happy face badge as a reward. Later, only peer praise served as a reward for those whose friendliness was mentioned by a peer. Cooperative behavior increased and aggressive acts decreased when peers reported prosocial behavior to the class. A reversal phase, in which unfriendly acts were reported, produced a decrease in cooperation and an increase in aggression. Peer reporting was a natural and inexpensive means of increasing prosocial responses of these children. Anecdotal teacher reports suggested a generalized behavioral improvement.     

Child,Parenting, and Situational Characteristics Associated with Toddlers' Prosocial Behaviour

The infant and toddler years are crucial for the development of prosocial behaviour, such as helping, sharing, comforting and cooperation. Recent evidence suggests that the correlates of different types of prosocial behaviour may differ. The current study investigated whether child, maternal parenting and situational characteristics were differentially associated with toddlers' cooperation and concern with a peer. The sample, drawn from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care, included the 612 children who participated in the 36‐month dyadic play session and their mothers. The results indicated that girls were more cooperative and expressed more concern than boys. Greater sustained attention to toys was associated with lower cooperation. Children were more cooperative with peers who engaged in more positive social interaction, and expressed more concern with peers that they had a close relationship with. Maternal sensitivity at 24 months was associated with greater cooperation when the peer engaged in more positive social behaviour. Finally, both maternal sensitivity and cognitive stimulation at 15 months indirectly influenced toddlers' cooperation through maternal sensitivity at 24 months, underscoring the predictive power of early parenting when children are rapidly developing the capacity to engage in prosocial behaviour. Overall, the results highlight some differences in the correlates of toddlers' cooperation and concern. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Academic performance,prejudice, and the jigsaw classroom: new pieces to the puzzle

This field study investigated the effects of a cooperative learning environment and a Jigsaw classroom environment on academic performance, self-esteem, liking of school, liking of peers, and racial prejudice. The subjects were 103 children in Grades 4–6, in two separate schools. The cooperative learning condition was used as a baseline measure of the effects of cooperation, against which the effects of a Jigsaw method, involving both cooperation and interdependence, were compared. The results reveal that Jigsaw produced significant improvements on measures of academic performance, liking of peers, and racial prejudice. In contrast, the effect of the cooperative condition was to exacerbate pre-existing intergroup tensions. The present findings demonstrate that the Jigsaw method can be applied successfully in Australian conditions, and lend support to Allport's contact hypothesis. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Children's reasoning with peers in cooperative and competitive contexts

We report two studies that demonstrate how five‐ and seven‐year‐olds adapt their production of arguments to either a cooperative or a competitive context. Two games elicited agreements from peer dyads about placing animals on either of two halves of a playing field owned by either child. Children had to produce arguments to justify these decisions. Played in a competitive context that encouraged placing animals on one's own half, children's arguments showed a bias that was the result of withholding known arguments. In a cooperative context, children produced not only more arguments, but also more ‘two‐sided’ arguments. Also, seven‐year‐olds demonstrated a more frequent and strategic use of arguments that specifically refuted decisions that would favour their peers. The results suggest that cooperative contexts provide a more motivating context for children to produce arguments.

Statement of contribution

What is already known on this subject ?

• Reasoning is a social skill that allows people to reach joint decisions.
• Preschoolers give reasons for their proposals in their peer conversations.
• By adolescence, children use sophisticated arguments (e.g., refutations and rebuttals).

What the present study adds?

• Cooperation offers a more motivating context for children's argument production.
• Seven‐year‐olds are more strategic than five‐year‐olds in their reasoning with peers.
• Children's reasoning with others becomes more sophisticated after preschool years.

     

Social knowledge and social competence: number and quality of strategies as predictors of peer behavior

The purpose of this study was to examine the ability of two different measures of preschool children's social strategy knowledge to predict classroom behavior with peers. Thirty-two 4- and 5-year-old children attending a university sponsored preschool were administered the Preschool Interpersonal Problem-Solving Tests (PIPS) and an enactive assessment of strategy knowledge. Observational and teacher-rating measures of children's positive and aggressive peer behavior were also obtained. Significant correlations were obtained between (a) the number of strategies produced in the enactive measure and cooperative play ratings by teachers, (b) the number of strategies produced in the PIPS and observations of positive peer behavior, and (c) ratings of friendliness in the PIPS and teacher-rated cooperative play and aggression and observations of aggression. Results are discussed in terms of implications for social skill training.     

双人合作类电子/传统游戏对幼儿同伴交往与亲社会行为的影响

近期研究表明短时接触双人电子游戏有助于促进幼儿的同伴交往与亲社会行为。本研究进一步考查了5天的双人合作类电子游戏与传统游戏干预对幼儿社会化的影响。结果显示,电子与传统游戏干预均能促进幼儿的同伴交往和亲社会行为,且两者的效果不存在差异;女孩比男孩更喜欢自己的搭档、更乐于与同伴交往和分享,游戏干预效果不存在性别差异。可见双人合作类电子/传统游戏干预对幼儿的同伴交往和亲社会行为发展都较有裨益。