进化还是倒退:儿童过度模仿的文化共性与差异

过度模仿指模仿与完成目标无关的动作。本文通过比较不同文化下儿童过度模仿行为的共性和差异,探究了儿童过度模仿可能的产生机制。不同文化下的儿童均存在过度模仿行为,说明它很可能是人类累积文明发展的重要产物;而不同文化下儿童过度模仿的倾向又存在差异,生存环境、教导式学习和对社会规范的强调等因素均可能产生影响。未来研究可考虑进一步探究不同文化因素的具体作用,并比较不同文化下个体过度模仿行为的发展进程,帮助我们更好地理解过度模仿在人类文明发展中的意义。     

遵守规范的动机对儿童过度模仿的影响

模仿非任务相关动作的行为被称为过度模仿。研究以94名4-6岁儿童为被试,通过操纵无关动作与结果之间的关系,考察了儿童遵守规范的动机对过度模仿的影响。结果发现,当遵守规范导致不能得到想要的结果时,儿童没有表现出明显的过度模仿;而当遵守规范与得到结果不冲突时,儿童过度模仿的比例显著增加。这些结果说明遵守规范的动机影响儿童的过度模行为,当遵守规范的动机降低时,过度模仿行为减少。     

视觉障碍儿童适应行为特点的研究

本研究用儿童适应行为量表对5－12岁的视障儿童和正常儿童适应行为进行比较研究,结果发现：视障儿童的年龄与适应行为发展之间存在着明显的相关,而正常儿童不存在这种相关。同时,视障缺损程度不同影响儿童适应行为的发展;虽然没有发现性别因素引起视障儿童适应行为的差异,但在社会责任和劳动技能的适应行为中,女孩的表现略优于男孩。     

幼儿社会行为发展特点的研究

本研究采用随机抽样法对12个小、中、大班共435名幼儿社会行为的发展特点进行了研究。结果表明,幼儿积极行为和消极行为在数量和质量上均存在一定差异;幼儿积极行为和消极行为内部不同行为间的发展具有一致性与差异性;在幼儿不同类型的社会行为的发展中,自然因素与环境教育因素在儿童发展不同阶段起着不同作用。幼儿社会行为发展存在显著的性别差异。     

对儿童语言获得的几点看法─—从追踪研究结果分析影响儿童语言获得的因素

儿童语言获得有普遍性,但也存在某些差异。经分析,影响和决定儿童语言获得普遍性和差异的是同样的四个因素:第一个因素是语言本身有普遍性,但不同语言也存在一些差异;第二个因素是人脑和言语器官有普遍性,但发育水平有差异;第三个因素,儿童的认知发展有普遍性,但存在的某些差异能促进或限制语言获得;第四个因素是儿童与成人的语言交际、成人的语言教援和儿童相应的模仿学习。以及儿童本身的选择性和主动创造性。总之,儿童的语言获得是在人脑和语言器官发育和认知发展的基础上,在与成人和其他儿童的交际过程中,经过成人的言语教授(示范、强化、扩展和激励)和儿童有选择的模仿学习,并经概括而成的。因此,我们不能否认人脑和语言器官、认知发展的作用;同样,我们也不能否认成人言语教授和儿童模仿学习的作用,以及儿童本身在语言获得过程中表现在选择和概括两个方面的主动性和创造性的作用。     

6～8岁儿童表现公平行为的发展:社会信号的作用

采用现场情境实验探究社会信号作用下,6~8岁儿童表现公平行为的发展,实验1选取270名6~8岁儿童,采用资源分配任务考察儿童在结果公平情境下表现公平行为的发展,实验2选取300名6~8岁儿童,采用抛硬币任务考察儿童在结果不公平情境下表现公平行为的发展。结果显示:儿童表现公平行为存在显著的年龄差异,有无社会信号条件对儿童公平行为存在显著影响。结论:社会信号作用下儿童会更多地做出表现公平行为而非本质公平。     

社交机器人对ASD儿童社会互动行为的诱导效应

为探究社交机器人对自闭症谱系障碍(autism spectrum disorders,ASD)儿童社会互动行为的诱导效应,以24名ASD儿童为被试,比较NAO机器人和人诱导被试靠近、接触、模仿、眼神注视及皮电变化差异。发现:⑴NAO机器人诱导被试靠近、接触和眼神注视发生次数更多,眼神注视时间占比更高;⑵两者诱导被试模仿无显著差异;⑶打招呼时,NAO机器人引起被试皮电变化率更高。总之,社交机器人能增强ASD儿童社交兴趣和情绪唤醒,缓解社交回避,诱导社会互动行为主动发生。     

口吃儿童言语产生中的抑制控制：来自出声Go/Nogo任务的证据

抑制控制在言语产生中起重要作用,其功能异常可能是造成口吃的原因之一。前人研究发现成年口吃者存在与抑制控制相关的脑区(右侧额下回)的过度激活,但在口吃儿童中没有。此外,关于口吃儿童抑制控制的行为研究只运用了按键任务,结果也存在很大争议。故本研究运用出声Go/Nogo任务检验口吃儿童在言语产生中的反应抑制能力。结果发现,口吃组与对照组在击中和虚报的反应时、漏报率和虚报率上均未表现出组间差异,而且口吃组的这些指标与口吃程度也没有显著相关。在排除速度与准确率的权衡后,上述结果支持口吃儿童在言语产生中对发音运动的反应抑制并不存在普遍缺陷,在一定程度上支持了成年口吃者右侧额下回过度激活的补偿解释。     

自闭症儿童利用社会性注意线索习得词语的眼动研究

本研究采用眼动技术考察18名自闭症儿童利用社会性注意线索习得词语的能力。结果表明：1）自闭症儿童具有利用他人视线习得词语的能力;2）不同视线对自闭症儿童的词语习得产生不同的影响;3）自闭症儿童视线追随行为的潜在机制与普通儿童存在差异,自闭症儿童的视线追随行为可能是意识性的诱发行为而普通儿童则是反射性的自发行为。     

儿童经济现象认知的研究进展

经济现象广泛存在于社会生活,对经济现象的认知是儿童社会认知的重要组成部分。儿童对经济现象的认知包括对基本经济概念、经济原则、经济规律和经济行为的认知等。研究表明,儿童对基本经济概念的理解随着年龄的增长而不断发展,但是受环境和经验因素的影响,存在跨文化的差异。儿童对不同经济概念理解的发展是不同步的。儿童可能很早就出现对基本经济概念内隐性的理解。儿童对经济原则和经济规律的理解也是随着年龄的增长而不断发展的,并且和他们对基本经济概念的理解息息相关。储蓄行为是一种重要的经济行为。12岁的儿童能够理解储蓄的多重目的,并仍处于发展之中。     

儿童基于不同线索的所有权判断及其文化差异

对所有权的认知依赖于不同的线索。儿童很早就能通过不同的线索判断所有权。3岁幼儿能够基于先占、劳动、证言、许可控制、刻板印象等线索判断所有权。社会经济和文化因素会影响幼儿对所有权线索的利用, 如社会经济发展不发达地区儿童对先占线索的利用在发展上会有所延迟, 集体主义文化中的幼儿在进行所有权判断时更保守一些, 表现为当先占线索和劳动线索冲突时更倾向于判断物品属于先占者。未来研究应重视通过冲突线索范式探索不同线索在儿童所有权判断中的权重, 探索儿童基于不同线索判断所有权背后的内部心理机制, 同时尝试利用眼动技术等手段对2岁以下幼儿的所有权认知进行研究。     

Complementary cultures in children's psychotherapy groups: conflict, coexistence, and convergence in group development.

This article presents a model for understanding development within children's psychotherapy groups. It is proposed that two complementary cultures exist within children's groups, one, indigenous peer culture, strictly of the children's making and the other, therapeutic group culture, created by the therapist in collaboration with group members. The therapist is wise to approach indigenous peer culture as an ethnographer might a native culture, with an emphasis on observation and seeking understanding rather than on intervention. The therapist can use the indigenous peer culture to speak to the children in their own language and eventually to engage them in collaboratively building a meaning system that is uniquely designed to address their psychotherapeutic needs. The article defines these concepts, develops them theoretically, and illustrates them clinically.     

Describing the Acquisition of Determiners in English: A Growth Modeling Approach

This paper, based on naturalistic data, describes the acquisitional course and use of the articles a and the in young English-speaking children (18-61 months), with special emphasis on the role of individual variation. A growth modeling approach to the data reveals that children's individual acquisition schedules are similar in trend, but vary in the rate at which they omit determiners at a given point of time. This picture suggests that an analysis that presumes homogeneous development will seriously misrepresent the fluctuations between and within individuals. Interestingly, this variation does not reflect a variation in children's abilities to use determiners correctly-irrespective of the rate in which they used determiners, children seldom used determiners incorrectly. The analysis also reveals that children's optional omission of determiners in obligatory contexts, beginning at 18 months of age, gradually decreases on average by 3-4% a month until 36 months of age, and thereafter plunges by a factor of 10 to an average of 0.3% per month. At 36 month of age the majority of children use determiners at a near-mastery level (Brown, 1973). These findings provide a useful framework for theorizing about possible mechanisms underlying the nature of early language development pre- and post-36 months of age.     

儿童行为抑制性发展的研究综述

美国心理学家杰罗姆·凯根提出了气质的行为抑制-非抑制性说,激发了学者从儿童的行为抑制性的角度对气质进行深入研究。本文阐述了当前行为抑制性研究对气质的研究方法的改进、行为抑制性发展的稳定性问题及抑制性与文化差异等的关系。     

Gesturing makes learning last

The gestures children spontaneously produce when explaining a task predict whether they will subsequently learn that task. Why? Gesture might simply reflect a child's readiness to learn a particular task. Alternatively, gesture might itself play a role in learning the task. To investigate these alternatives, we experimentally manipulated children's gesture during instruction in a new mathematical concept. We found that requiring children to gesture while learning the new concept helped them retain the knowledge they had gained during instruction. In contrast, requiring children to speak, but not gesture, while learning the concept had no effect on solidifying learning. Gesturing can thus play a causal role in learning, perhaps by giving learners an alternative, embodied way of representing new ideas. We may be able to improve children's learning just by encouraging them to move their hands.     

信息提供者的先前准确性对幼儿选择性信任的影响

作为社会学习的个体,幼儿从3岁起就能根据信息提供者先前准确性的差异对其可信程度进行评估。通过对以往研究效应量的整理分析发现,随年龄增长,幼儿对高先前准确性信息提供者的信任程度表现出增长趋势（3岁幼儿选择的效应量中值为d_询问=0.60,d_赞同=0.61;4岁幼儿的效应量中值为d_询问=0.80,d_赞同=0.96）。在运用先前准确性进行评估时,幼儿主要关注信息提供者是否犯错,灵活使用"整体印象"和"特质推测"两种认知策略对其未来行为进行推测。幼儿能够根据自身对材料的感知对信息提供者的可信程度进行动态调整,其心理理论发展水平和执行功能限制了他们的选择信任,而信息提供者同时具有的社会性因素对幼儿的选择也具有干扰作用（幼儿信任准确的信息提供者的效应量中值为d_询问=-0.03,d_赞同=-0.17）。未来研究可以改进实验范式,进一步探查先前准确性对幼儿选择性信任的影响,拓展信息提供者的呈现方式和其它多重特征,关注不同类别的信息提供者。     

Time to get a new mountain? The role of function in children's conceptions of natural kinds

Prior research indicates that young children are promiscuously teleological, attributing purpose not only to artifacts, but also to living and non-living natural entities. This study further examines the role of function in children's reasoning about different object kinds by indirectly probing children's intuitions about what types of entities can be rendered functionless. Specifically, children were asked to decide whether entities that could no longer perform certain activities should be fixed/replaced (e.g. "Do you need to get a new one?"). Results reveal that young children broadly view both artificial and natural kinds that can no longer perform certain activities as needing to be fixed or replaced. These findings suggest that the teleo-functional bias not only influences children's explanatory preferences but also their category judgments.     

Children's gender-related inferences and judgments: a cross-cultural study.

This study compared the gender-related inferences and judgments of elementary school children (N = 542) of 2 different age groups (3rd graders and 5th graders) from 2 different cultures: Taiwan, a traditional collectivistic culture, and Israel, an individualistic and less traditional culture. The children were presented with 4 stories, 2 about a male target and 2 about a female target with either traditionally masculine or traditionally feminine interests, and were asked to make cognitive and emotional-motivational inferences and judgments about them. Culture played an important role in children's gender-related inferences and judgments. Specifically, Taiwanese children distinguished more than did Israeli children between male targets behaving stereotypically and counterstereotypically. The findings are analyzed within the framework of the differences between the 2 cultures.     

心理长度对二年级儿童数字线估计表征的影响

从心理长度的角度探讨二年级儿童在0~100和0~1000数字范围存在不同表征方式的原因。实验一要求二年级儿童完成长度均为10cm,范围分别为0~100和0~1000的数字线估计任务。实验二要求儿童对长度分别为10cm和18cm,范围均为0~1000的数字线进行估计。结果发现在两个实验中二年级儿童的估计均存在心理长度,但与以往研究的一年级儿童相比,心理长度的范围有所缩小。随着数字范围的增大或长度的减小,儿童的表征方式出现了从线性表征向对数表征的转变趋势。这些结果表明不精确的表征方式可能与心理长度策略的使用有关,心理长度在一定程度上影响了二年级儿童的估计表征方式。