Some Effects of Crowding in a Prison Environment1

Inmates at a federal correctional institution were examined for their criterion of what constitutes overcrowding. In general, inmates who were housed under highly crowded conditions exhibited less tolerance of overcrowding than did those who were housed under relatively less crowded conditions. Higher crowding also yielded more negative affective responses to the physical environment. This relationship existed only with respect to a social-density measure of crowding and not for a spatial-density measure.     

Some Effects of Reduction of Extra-Classroom Crowding in a School Environment

The effects of reduced enrollment were studied by examining two architecturally identical schools. One school experienced a 43% reduction in enrollment while the other's enrollment remained constant. Reduction in enrollment had a number of positive benefits, including improved attitudes about the school environment and reduced faculty absenteeism. Findings regarding academic performance were less clear.     

Effects of Acute Experimental Crowding1

Recent concern with population growth has begun to stimulate interest in the effect of crowding on humans. This report presents a model of crowding based on the concept of normative expectations concerning appropriate interaction distances. A study of acute experimental crowding was then conducted. Contrary to findings of prior research, the present study found that crowding produced arousal. Subsequent social behavior, however, was mediated by different sex-specific group processes. In general, crowded male groups displayed a competitive, fragmented orientation, whereas crowded women formed cohesive, cooperative groups. Contrary to preliminary expectations, subjects were differentially effected by crowding based on their seating position in the crowded room.     

Crowding in a Woman's Prison: Attitudinal and Behavioral Effects1

Two studies were conducted to assess the impact of crowding on female inmates. The first study, an archival analysis of the records of 561 women prisoners, showed that the average population in the institution was significantly related to the transformed rate of disciplinary infractions, even when other variables had been controlled for. The second study, which used a questionnaire, found that inmates' perceived control was positively related to liking for their room and negatively related to their reported stress and physical symptoms. In addition, the stress inmates experienced was negatively related to liking for their room and positively related to physical symptoms.     

The Effects of Residential Crowding Experience on Reactivity to Laboratory Crowding and Noise1

Sixty male and 60 female subjects previously classified as high and low on a residential crowding experience scale participated in an experiment involving a 2 × 3 × 2 × 2 (density, noise, crowding experience, gender) factorial design. The research was undertaken primarily to determine the influence of previous residential crowding experience as tapped by the Crowding Experience Scale (CES) on reactivity to the environmental stressors of noise and crowding. The results indicated that exposure to environmental stressors produced a deleterious effect on complex task performance and generated negative affect in the respondents. Interestingly, respondents who had reported high levels of experience with crowding showed relatively more crowding tolerance by performing significantly better on cognitively complex tasks (complex anagrams and story comprehension) and exhibiting more positive affect in conditions of high density as compared to low experience of crowding respondents. Reactions to noise were not influenced by crowding experience. Thus, prior experience of crowding as measured by the CES appears to influence reactivity to density in other settings.     

Effects of Bodily Contact on Reactions to Crowding1

The present study examined the effects of bodily contact in a crowded environment. Initially, the skin conductance levels (SCL) of 160 males and females were obtained during rest and while bursting a balloon. In a subsequent session, subjects in same-sex groups of four were seated for 30 minutes in either (a) a large room, (b) a small room subjected to unavoidable bodily contact, or (c) a small room which was partitioned to either reduce or prevent bodily contact while allowing visual access. Measures of mood, tolerance for frustration, cognitive task performance, and self reports of annoyance and somatic distress were then taken. Results showed that crowding is stressful and that bodily contact makes a significant contribution to the amount of stress experienced for both men and women. In general, crowded subjects forced to touch showed the greatest increases in SCL, felt most annoyed, were most bothered by spatial intrusion during crowding, and had the lowest tolerance for frustration following crowding. Sex differences in mood following crowding and in reaction to the noncrowded environment were observed and appeared to be mediated by differential social concerns.     

间距和语义对阅读障碍儿童拥挤效应的影响

以14名阅读障碍儿童以及与其年龄和阅读水平相匹配的儿童为实验对象,考察了间距和语义对阅读障碍儿童拥挤效应的影响。结果发现阅读障碍儿童受拥挤效应的影响显著大于正常儿童,表明阅读障碍存在视觉加工缺陷;间距和语义均影响阅读障碍儿童的拥挤效应,表明影响阅读障碍儿童拥挤效应的因素既有刺激的低水平视觉特征,也有高水平语言信息;间距与阅读障碍儿童拥挤效应的关系呈U型。     

Behavioral and Physiological Consequences of Crowding in Humans1

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of crowding on human performance. Results generally supported the hypothesis that crowding acts as a stressor which may be mediated by overarousal. Moderate decrements in complex but not simple task performance were found for crowded subjects as compared to uncrowded controls. Poorer performance on a group cooperation task and less tolerance for frustration as an aftereffect of the crowded experience were reported. Crowded subjects in comparison to controls also exhibited significant elevations in blood pressure and pulse rate and manifested additional behavioral indices of stress, which included greater behavioral stereotypes, increased defensive postures, more remarks toward the door of the experimental room, and self reports of greater discomfort and hostility.     

The Effects of Changes in Jail Population Densities on Crowding,Sick Call,and Spatial Behavior1

Perceived crowding, rate of sick calls, and use of space were studied among jail inmates. The inmates had been randomly assigned to one of two jail units that were identical in design and management, but varied in population density levels. Initially, population density was rated at capacity on one unit, and over capacity on the other. Data were collected before and after a court order that caused population levels to be decreased on the unit over capacity and increased on the other, so that after the change density on both units was the same. Comparison data were also collected on several other units. The results revealed both absolute and contrast effects for density on inmates. Perceived crowding and sick call rates varied directly with density levels, but also were affected by the direction of shift. That is, when population levels were equal after the change, perceived crowding and sick call rates were higher on the unit that had experienced an increase in density. Also, as population levels increased, there tended to bean increase in isolated passive behavior and a decrease in isolated active behavior in public areas. Implications for crowding research and for jail design and management are discussed.     

The Effect of Crowding on Human Task Performance1

In a series of three experiments, groups of people performed tasks under varying conditions of density. The tasks ranged from very simple to complex, from rote memory to a test of creativity. Subjects worked on the tasks for 4 hours at a time for two or three successive days. There were no significant effects of density on performance, nor any consistent trends.     

Affect and Performance on Cognitive Task as a Function of Crowding and Noise1

Sixty undergraduate males participated in an experiment with a 2 × 3 factorial design involving two levels of density and three levels of noise to demonstrate effects of the independent variables (density, noise) on cognitive task performance and affect. As predicted, it was found that crowding and noise lead to deterioration of subject's performance on cognitively complex tasks but not on simple (cognitive) task. Also, density and noise generated a negative feeling in the subjects. Significant two-way interaction for complex task, showed variation in performance of Ss of high and low density under low and high noise conditions. In addition, crowded-condition subjects reported more dissatisfaction about their performance and evaluated the presence of the experimenter as significantly less pleasant than their noncrowded-condition counterparts.     

Crowding,Perceived Control,and Behavioral Aftereffects1

A laboratory experiment was conducted in which groups of Ss performed simple and complex tasks for one hour in three conditions of crowding: (1) noncrowded, (2) crowded, (3) crowded-with-perceived-control. Immediately afterward, all groups worked in a noncrowded situation on two additional tasks, one involving frustration tolerance and the other involving quality of proofreading performance. Conditions of crowding had no effect on simple or complex task performance. In the postcrowding situation, however, significant negative behavioral aftereffects were observed for the crowded groups on the frustration tolerance measure, though perceived control ameliorated these aftereffects. There were no significant aftereffects on the prooofreading measure.     

拥挤感启动对威胁性表情识别知觉敏感性的影响

为了考察拥挤感启动对威胁性面部表情识别的影响,以28名大学生为被试,进行不同拥挤启动条件下的愤怒-中性和恐惧-中性表情识别任务。信号检测论分析发现,拥挤感启动降低了愤怒表情识别的辨别力,不影响其判断标准,也不影响恐惧表情识别的辨别力和判断标准;主观报告的愤怒表情强度在拥挤感启动条件下显著高于非拥挤条件,恐惧、中性表情强度则不受拥挤感启动的影响。结果表明,拥挤感启动使人们辨别愤怒表情的知觉敏感性下降。     

Crowding and stress: 1. Review of variables and theories

Recent empirical research has sometimes failed to support the existence of a direct causal link between human crowding, as measured by objective density indices, and stress effects. It has even been proposed that high density merely intensifies reactions due to other causes, thereby casting basic doubt on the reality of crowding-induced stress. Conceptual issues in crowding research are discussed, and an attempt is made to resolve definitional problems. Theories of crowding are reviewed, suggesting that any plausible theory of crowding effects must take seriously the cognitive mediation of environmental variables, plus the operation of a complex set of personal and interpersonal processes which will determine whether and when high densityis likely to result in stress. These considerations cast doubt on the generalizability of that research which has failed to demonstrate crowding stress effects, and highlight the need for an integration of existing theories, so that predictions of the circumstances where crowding stress is most likely can eventually be made with greater precision.     

Buffering Effects of Benefit Finding in a War Environment

Benefit finding (BF) has been extensively examined after exposure to traumatic events. However, less research has examined BF as a buffer against the negative effects of an ongoing stressful event. Data from 1,925 U.S. Army soldiers deployed in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) was used to examine whether BF would moderate the relationship between combat exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Regression analyses revealed that BF was associated with lower levels of PTSD and depression. However, we found that BF during the combat deployment was found to moderate the combat exposure–PTSD relationship, such that the relationship was stronger when BF was low. Results are discussed in terms of BF being a form of meaning-based coping that may help soldiers adjust to the challenges of war.     

Social Density,Interpersonal Relationships,and Residential Crowding Stress1

Research has suggested that tripled rooms may be characterized by a coalition of two roommate(s) and a third, left-out rommate (i.e., the isolate) who is more vulnerable to crowding and control-related problems. The present study sought (1) to confirm the existence of two person coalitions in tripled rooms and (2) to further explore the mediating effects of interpersonal relationships on crowding stress and related problems. Thirty intact groups of roommates from doubled rooms (n= 60) and 39 intact groups of roommates from tripled rooms (n= 117) completed a set of surveys concerned with residential experiences. Results suggested that crowding stress previously associated with tripled residential settings may be mediated by interpersonal relationships; tripled residents who had negative interpersonal relationships with their roommates reported being more bothered by crowding, at both the beginning and end of the semester, than doubled residents who expressed negativity towards their roommate. Satisfaction with privacy was also influenced not only by the number of people with whom a resident shared a room, but also by the nature of the resident's interpersonal relationships with his/her roommate(s). Data also suggest that control-related problems may be a direct outcome of poor interpersonal relationships among inhabitants. Results also indicated that only a small percentage of tripled rooms were characterized by reciprocal, two person coalitions.     

Evaluation of a Trauma-Informed School Intervention with Girls in a Residential Facility School: Student Perceptions of School Environment

In response to the high nationwide prevalence of psychological trauma among court-involved youth who have been exposed to abuse and neglect and the associated far-reaching adverse consequences, there are calls to develop a trauma-informed workforce across the various systems (child welfare, juvenile justice, mental health, and education) designed to serve this population. We describe a pilot test of a modified version of the Heart of Teaching and Learning (HTL) curriculum, an intervention designed to increase trauma-informed practices in education settings. This program was implemented in a public charter school that exclusively serves court-involved youth placed in residential treatment. The intervention was associated with decreases in trauma symptoms experienced by youth. Because student perceptions of teachers were high both before and after implementation of the curriculum, no statistically significant changes were observed. The article concludes with a discussion of the ways in which the curriculum can be used to help prepare a national education workforce capable of implementing trauma-informed evidence-based practices in school settings.     

Solitude,Religious and Cultural Uniqueness in a Foreign Environment: Adjustments as an Arab Student

Arab-Muslims have extremely religious-centered and restrictive cultural practices. Living in a foreign country where Islam is a minority religion and culture is categorically different entails a great deal of adjustment. This study explored how Arab-Muslim International Students live and cope in a non-Arab, non-Muslim country. The authors used phenomenological approach with Colaizzi’s method of analysis to (1) explore the lived experience of the Arab students’ academic and social life and (2) come up with recommendations that can be supported by universities in Philippines and other countries with Arab students. Emergent themes include Hybrid vision and empowerment from education beyond borders “Tatallo at wa kudurat,” Stigma in the Arab world “Hallah,” Islam as way of life “Al Islam: Manhaj Hayyat,” and Future of the Arab-Muslim students “Wahaa.” The major concepts that emerged from the lived experience of these students focused on the practical reasons for quality education, challenges along the way, culture shock, the stigma, and misconceptions about Arabs and Muslims. They experienced discrimination, the impact of stereotyping and misconceptions about the Arab-Muslims. Their tenacity of the Islam faith has become a coping mechanism and kept them enormously strong. They also strived to show the real meaning of being Muslim, and finally, looking forward to how they can become the oasis in the desert. The Arab-Muslim International Students experience difficult adjustments in a foreign country to acquire high quality education, while holding on to their Islam faith and keeping their culture intact.     

发展性阅读障碍的视觉拥挤效应

发展性阅读障碍的核心缺陷一直是研究者关注的焦点。近年来,国内外大量研究发现视觉加工缺陷可能是导致阅读障碍的一个重要原因,其中视觉拥挤效应与阅读障碍密切相关。本文将回顾视觉拥挤效应的概念及其理论基础、拼音文字和汉语阅读障碍者视觉拥挤效应的相关研究,提出汉语阅读障碍视觉拥挤效应研究的未来发展方向,以便更好地了解汉语阅读障碍与视觉拥挤效应之间的关系。     

Student Nurses' Experiences of The Clinical Psychiatric Learning Environment in an Education Institution

This study investigated lived experiences of student nurses working in a clinical psychiatric learning environment in South Africa. Participants were 29 fourth-year student nurses in the clinical psychiatric learning environment at a nursing education institution (females = 27; males =2). They engaged in focus group discussion on their experiences of the clinical psychiatric learning environment. The data were thematically analyzed using Tesch's method of open coding. The student nurses experienced the environment as growth enhancing on a professional and personal level.