4~6岁汉语儿童正字法意识的萌芽与发展

研究旨在考察汉语学龄前儿童正字法意识的发展情况。在某中等城市一所幼儿园随机选择4岁、5岁、6岁三个年龄段的儿童各31、37、34名。实验一使用汉字、韩文和日文（平假名）作为实验材料探查学龄前儿童的汉字特异性意识;实验二使用上下结构、左右结构的真字、假字和非字考察学龄前儿童的部件位置意识。实验结果显示：（1）三组儿童都能区分日文和汉字,5岁左右儿童这种能力达到成熟。4岁儿童不能区分汉字和韩文,直到6岁,辨别汉字和韩文的能力也没有发展成熟。（2）三组儿童都能意识到假字符合正字法规则,但拒绝非字的能力在学前期尚未发展成熟,儿童在学前期不具备部件位置意识;6岁儿童更容易拒绝上下部件位置颠倒的非字。     

汉语儿童正字法意识的萌芽与发展

以474个幼儿园中、大班和小学一到三年级学生为研究对象,通过对70个线条图、位置错误非字、部件错误非字、假字和真字进行字典判断,探讨汉语儿童正字法意识的萌芽、发展及其与识字量之间的关系。结果发现:(1)汉语儿童正字法意识是从无到有、逐步发展的。学前处于萌芽状态,一年级儿童则已具备了一定的正字法意识,并随着年级增加而不断发展。(2)正字法意识分为多个层次,学前阶段只能发展区分汉字和线条图的基本能力,位置意识和部件意识要在入学后才能逐步发展,并且前者的获得比后者容易。(3)正字法意识的发展要以一定的识字量为基础,阅读能力在发展的不同阶段,分别与正字法意识的不同层面密切相关。     

汉语学龄前儿童正字法意识的发展

本研究选择北京地区幼儿园3岁、4岁、5岁儿童各31、48、33名, 采用单部件意识测验和部件位置及功能意识测验系统探查了学龄前儿童的正字法意识各个层面的发展状况。单部件意识测验包括部件替换、部件缺失和部件旋转三个部分; 部件位置及功能意识测验分为假字和非字两个部分, 而非字又包括两形非字和形声非字。结果发现单部件意识测验中, 5岁组儿童在部件替换水平上的得分显著高于3岁组儿童, 而3岁组与4岁组、4岁组与5岁组儿童之间无显著差异; 部件缺失和部件旋转水平上, 三个年龄段的儿童的得分表现出明显的增长趋势。部件位置及功能意识测验中, 假字得分在三个年龄段之间无显著差异; 非字得分随年龄增长显著提高。这些结果表明, 单部件意识在学前期处于不断发展的阶段, 其中对部件替换的非字的拒绝能力发展较早, 部件缺失和部件旋转非字的拒绝能力发展较晚; 部件位置及功能意识在学前期已经开始发展, 3岁儿童已经具有假字符合正字法规则的认识, 但对非字违反部件位置合法性和功能完整性的认识直到4岁左右才开始萌芽, 5岁还未成熟。     

部件的语音信息对于中文假字和非字判断的影响

通过两个实验探索部件的语音信息在人造汉字判断过程中的作用。实验一通过操纵部件的独立性和部件位置的合法性分别探讨部件语音信息和位置信息对于人造字判断的影响。结果发现,与部件不独立的假字相比,判断部件独立的假字需要更长的时间,正确率也更低;但是部件的独立性并不影响对非字的判断。实验二通过控制部件本身是否发音和部件是否能做真字的声旁这两个因素,发现上述两个语音因素均影响假字的判断：和部件本身不能发音的假字相比,判断部件本身能发音的假字反应时更长,正确率更低;和部件不能做声旁的假字相比,判断部件能做声旁的假字反应时更长,正确率更低。结果还发现部件所包含的语音信息越多,假字判断的正确率就越低。在最后的讨论部分,根据实验结果构建了一个关于识别人造字和低频字的认知加工模型。     

部件特征和正字法意识在儿童汉字书写发展中的作用

研究以北京地区262名汉语儿童为研究对象,探讨了部件复杂程度和部件数量对儿童延迟抄写成绩的影响,并通过一年的追踪,考察了儿童书写加工基本单位及其发展变化历程,并分析了儿童的正字法意识对其书写能力发展的预测作用。实验一发现汉语儿童的书写单位是一个从笔画到部件的多水平发展过程,在控制整字笔画的情况下,对于部件复杂的汉字,以笔画为单位进行编码,错误类型以笔画乱写和部件错误为主,而对于由简单部件组成的汉字,主要以部件为单位进行组块,儿童多犯部件替换的错误。实验二发现在部件复杂程度相同的情况下,汉字所包含的部件数量越多,儿童的书写正确率越低,多犯部件缺失和部件替换的错误。实验三发现儿童一年级的正字法意识能够显著预测当年及一年后的书写成绩,表明正字法意识对于儿童的书写发展具有重要作用。     

汉字认知过程中整字对部件的影响

英文研究中,"字优效应"是单词促进字母加工的一个重要依据。但中文研究中还存在一些争议。本研究通过两个实验考查了汉字的部件认知中,汉字整体对局部(部件)的影响。实验刺激材料分为三种,即左右结构或上下结构的真字、假字与部件字。目标部件为既能够放置于三种字符的左侧,又能放置于右侧(上部或下部)的汉字部件。实验一采用Reicher-Wheeler实验任务,先呈现刺激材料350ms,掩蔽后再呈现需要判断的目标部件,被试对目标部件进行按键反应。实验二中采用部件判断实验任务,先呈现需要判断的目标部件,再呈现刺激材料,被试对刺激材料中是否包含目标部件进行按键反应。记录反应时与正确率。27位健康女性大学生参与本实验。结果显示:(1)不论是Reicher-Wheeler实验任务还是部件判断实验任务,均显示部件字的部件认知判断速度最快。真字与假字相比,无"字优效应"。真字与部件字相比,存在着"字劣效应"。这些结果表明,汉字整字对汉字部件认知加工起到抑制作用;(2)两个实验任务均表现出汉字结构方式效应,即对左右结构的汉字的部件认知比上下结构的汉字更快;(3)部件的空间位置对部件识别存在影响。实验一中对下部件分辨最困难,分辨时间最长;实验二中发现对左部件的反应最快。字符结构方式效应与部件空间位置效应既存在于真字中,也存在于假字中。     

学龄儿童汉语正字法意识发展的研究

该研究以小学一年级、三年级、五年级儿童及大学生为被试,让他们对左右、上下和半包围三种结构类型的９０个真字、假字和非字进行词汇判断,以探讨儿童正字法意识的发展,结构类型的相应影响,以及年龄对汉字识别中结构类型效应的作用。结果表明;（１）儿童正字法意识的形成是以识字为基础的逐步发展的过程。小学一年级儿童已萌发了正字法意识,但至五年级时才基本达到了成人水平。（２）只有小学一年级被试的真字识别受结构类型影响。汉字识别中是否存在结构类型效应可能与被试识字经验、材料熟悉性等因素有关．（３）年级内部正字法意识的萌发和年级之间正字法意识发展的差异不受结构类型的影响,但萌发之后各年级内部均是对左右结构汉字正字法意识优于上下结构和半包围结构。     

汉字正字法家族效应的ERP研究

以汉字为实验材料,自变量为汉字正字法笔画家族大小,采用延迟反应的同一字判断任务,记录并研究大学生被试对刺激字的脑电(EEG)。本文对笔画家族的定义是,通过改变1~5笔笔画得到刺激字的正字法家族成员,改变的笔画不构成部件。脑电结果显示:大家族刺激字比小家族刺激字诱发更负的N400和N250成分、更低的P200,其中N400的结果与基于交互激活模型的二阶段理论的预期一致。     

正字法信息对发展性阅读障碍儿童图表阅读的影响:来自眼动的证据

摘要：旨在考察正字法信息在发展性阅读障碍儿童图表阅读中的作用,利用眼动仪记录汉语发展性阅读障碍组儿童与年龄匹配阅读正常组儿童图表阅读过程中的眼动数据。实验1控制了图表复杂度和问题难度,结果发现,复杂问题的正确率、总阅读时间、凝视时间、总注视时间、注视次数的组间差异显著;实验2用图像替代图表中的正字法信息,结果表明,将柱状图的x轴和图例以图像形式表示（消除柱状图中的正字法信息）时,阅读障碍组与阅读正常组阅读成绩无显著差异。结果提示,正字法信息阻碍了发展性阅读障碍儿童的图表阅读。     

阅读中的走神有程度之分吗?来自眼动的证据

选取60名大学生被试进行持续注意刺激任务范式,使用Eyelink-1000眼动仪记录眼动数据,分析错误句为兴趣区的回视路径阅读时间、前句末尾词和低频词的凝视时间三项眼动指标,考察阅读任务中走神是否有不同的程度。结果显示,发现错误时的三项眼动指标均大于未发现错误时;未发现词汇错误和论述错误时,错误句的回视路径阅读时间和前句末尾词的凝视时间均无显著差异,而未发现词汇错误时前句低频词的凝视时间显著小于未发现论述错误时。结果表明阅读时走神存在不同的程度,即深度走神和浅表走神。     

Emergent literacy and early writing skills

In the present study, the authors aimed to assess the short- and long-term predictive power of the various components of an emergent literacy model on early writing abilities in a language with a mainly transparent orthography (Italian). Emergent literacy skills were assessed in 72 children (M age = 5.05 years, SD = +/- .03) who were followed longitudinally from preschool to the end of the first grade of primary school. Their early writing abilities (orthographic correctness in writing individual words) and their advanced writing abilities (orthographic correctness in text writing) were tested at the beginning and at the end of the school year. Multiple stepwise and logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the predictive capacities of emergent literacy abilities on early and advanced writing competences. Results show that notational competence is a strong predictor of early writing skills and that phonological competence only has an effect insofar as it is integrated with notational competence. Emergent literacy competences do not significantly predict orthographic errors in advanced text writing. This research allows for reconsideration of the importance of phonological awareness and gives a central role to notational competence in predicting early writing competence.     

Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study

Although research has identified oral language, print knowledge, and phonological sensitivity as important emergent literacy skills for the development of reading, few studies have examined the relations between these aspects of emergent literacy or between these skills during preschool and during later reading. This study examined the joint and unique predictive significance of emergent literacy skills for both later emergent literacy skills and reading in two samples of preschoolers. Ninety-six children (mean age = 41 months, SD = 9.41) were followed from early to late preschool, and 97 children (mean age = 60 months, SD = 5.41) were followed from late preschool to kindergarten or first grade. Structural equation modeling revealed significant developmental continuity of these skills, particularly for letter knowledge and phonological sensitivity from late preschool to early grade school, both of which were the only unique predictors of decoding.     

Emergent Literacy and Early Writing Skills

In the present study, the authors aimed to assess the short- and long-term predictive power of the various components of an emergent literacy model on early writing abilities in a language with a mainly transparent orthography (Italian). Emergent literacy skills were assessed in 72 children (M age = 5.05 years, SD = ± .03) who were followed longitudinally from preschool to the end of the first grade of primary school. Their early writing abilities (orthographic correctness in writing individual words) and their advanced writing abilities (orthographic correctness in text writing) were tested at the beginning and at the end of the school year. Multiple stepwise and logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the predictive capacities of emergent literacy abilities on early and advanced writing competences. Results show that notational competence is a strong predictor of early writing skills and that phonological competence only has an effect insofar as it is integrated with notational competence. Emergent literacy competences do not significantly predict orthographic errors in advanced text writing. This research allows for reconsideration of the importance of phonological awareness and gives a central role to notational competence in predicting early writing competence.     

Modelling relations between sensory processing, speech perception, orthographic and phonological ability, and literacy achievement

The general magnocellular theory postulates that dyslexia is the consequence of a multimodal deficit in the processing of transient and dynamic stimuli. In the auditory modality, this deficit has been hypothesized to interfere with accurate speech perception, and subsequently disrupt the development of phonological and later reading and spelling skills. In the visual modality, an analogous problem might interfere with literacy development by affecting orthographic skills. In this prospective longitudinal study, we tested dynamic auditory and visual processing, speech-in-noise perception, phonological ability and orthographic ability in 62 five-year-old preschool children. Predictive relations towards first grade reading and spelling measures were explored and the validity of the global magnocellular model was evaluated using causal path analysis. In particular, we demonstrated that dynamic auditory processing was related to speech perception, which itself was related to phonological awareness. Similarly, dynamic visual processing was related to orthographic ability. Subsequently, phonological awareness, orthographic ability and verbal short-term memory were unique predictors of reading and spelling development.     

What Are the Functional Orthographic Units in Chinese Word Recognition: The Stroke or the Stroke Pattern?

We present evidence that the visual analysis of Chinese characters by skilled readers is based upon well-defined orthographic constituents. These functional units are the recurrent, integral stroke-patterns, not the individual strokes as previously thought. The speed of simultaneous 'same-different' comparisons of Chinese characters is affected by the number of these orthographic units and, for 'different' judgements, by the proportion of mismatching units, but not by the number of individual strokes. We further define a category of orthographic unit, referred to here as the 'lexical radical', which requires strict positional regularity within each composite character. Violation of positional regularity results in illegal non-characters. In contrast, recombination of orthographic units (stroke patterns) with the lexical radical in its regular position forms a regular pseudocharacter. We show that real characters are matched faster than pseudocharacters and non-characters-a word superiority effect in Chinese. Pseudocharacters are matched faster than non-characters, a pseudoword advantage in Chinese. We also present evidence suggesting that individual stroke patterns may be better recognized in real characters than in pseudocharacters and non-characters-a word superiority effect in terms of unit recognition. These results support the hypothesis that the functional orthographic unit in the recognition of Chinese characters, comparable to the letter in alphabetic word recognition, is the recurring integral stroke pattern.