Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS): Demographics,preferred sources of information,and accuracy of ADAS knowledge

Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) in passenger vehicles can improve highway safety. ADAS place powerful, yet imperfect, automation in the hands of drivers who hold both misconceptions and reservations about ADAS. There is little previous research on drivers’ knowledge of ADAS, and even less on sources of information drivers use to inform their knowledge. The present study addressed this gap, testing hypotheses about influences on understanding of seven ADAS in 634 licensed US drivers (aged 18–82). Multiple regression to predict self-assessed driver characteristics revealed: (a) Drivers who rated themselves as more technically sophisticated tended to be young and male, to be at once less objectively knowledgeable and more confident of their knowledge of ADAS, to avoid car dealers for ADAS information, and to value brand status; (b) Drivers who rated themselves as faster to adopt new technology also tended to be male but to be more objectively knowledgeable about ADAS and to prefer learning about ADAS from owner manuals; (c) Drivers who rated themselves as more confident in using novel vehicle technology tended to be young males with greater objective knowledge of ADAS who valued “hands-on” ADAS experience; (d) Drivers who rated themselves as more concerned about vehicle safety tended to be female, to value crash data, and to rely on hands-on experience to learn about ADAS; (e) Drivers who rated themselves as having greater aesthetic concerns tended to rely on information on styles, colors, wheels when buying a new car and preferred specific ADAS components. Neither of the latter two differed in objective ADAS knowledge. These results make a novel contribution in revealing how driver demographics and characteristics are related to preference for specific sources of information on ADAS and objective knowledge of ADAS. These results can inform future efforts to increase driver understanding of the capabilities and limitations of ADAS and hence increase public safety.     

Safe on the road – Does Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems Use affect Road Risk Perception?

A major goal of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) deployment is higher road safety. However, these systems are only as safe as users handle them. This article presents a study evaluating the links between the use of ADAS and road risk perception. 101 drivers were invited to evaluate accident probability and risk controllability and to indicate whether they were using ADAS or not. Results show that the use of ADAS decreases perceived accident probability and increases perceived controllability for risky driving situations. Since the degree of automation in ADAS is still low nowadays, it is important to discuss the importance of human factors for the purpose of a safer implementation.     

Analysis of advanced driver assistance systems in police vehicles: A survey study

Few studies have examined the impact of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) on police officers to improve driver safety and prevent crashes. This is in spite of police officers having higher driving-related mortality rates than average civilians. To fill this gap, a survey study was conducted on 73 police officers to assess their opinions on various ADAS features as well as their recommendations for improvement. Results of the correlation analyses indicated that officer behavior and opinion on ADAS features were influenced by the trust officers had in the available ADAS systems among other key factors such as ADAS training and perceived usefulness. On this basis, guidelines for future research and development of ADAS were provided to improve officer driving safety in police operations. The guidelines need to be further validated in future driving simulation or naturalistic studies.     

Effect of advanced driver-assistance system trainings on driver workload,knowledge, and trust

Older adults are more likely to get severely injured or die in vehicle crashes. Advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) can reduce their risk of crashes; however, due to the lack of knowledge and training, usage rate of these systems among older drivers is limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of two ADAS training approaches (i.e., video-based and demonstration-based training) on older drivers’ subjective and objective measures of mental workload, knowledge and trust considering drivers’ demographic information. Twenty older adults, balanced by gender, participated in a driving simulation study. Results indicated that the video-based training might be more effective for females in reducing their mental workload while driving, whereas the demonstration-based training could be more beneficial for males. There was no significant difference between the video-based and demonstration-based trainings in terms of drivers’ trust and knowledge of automation. The findings suggested that ADAS training protocols can potentially be more effective if they are tailored to specific driver demographics.     

Negative attitudes towards cyclists influence the acceptance of an in-vehicle cyclist detection system

The shift towards automation and safer vehicles will increasingly involve use of technological advancements such as Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). Nevertheless, these technologies need to meet users’ perceived needs to be effectively implemented and purchased. Based on an updated version of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this study analyses the main determinants of drivers’ intention to use an ADAS aimed at detecting cyclist and preventing potential collision with them through an auto-braking system. Even if the relevance of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and trust on the acceptance of a new system has been already discussed in literature, we considered the role of an external variable such as attitudes towards cyclists in the prediction of an ADAS aimed to improve the safety of cyclists. We administered a questionnaire measuring negative attitudes towards cyclists, trust, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and the behavioural intention to use the system to 480 Italian drivers. Path analysis using Bayesian estimation showed that perceived usefulness, trust in the system, and negative attitudes towards cyclists have a direct effect on the intention to use the ADAS. Considering the role of attitudes towards other road users in the intention to use new ADAS aimed to improve their safety could foster the user’s acceptance, especially for those people who express a negative representation of cyclists and are even more unlikely to accept the technology.     

Consumer knowledge and acceptance of advanced driver assistance systems

This research aimed to examine how personal car users are informed about Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) in Australia, and the extent to which information received at point of sale influenced the level of understanding and adaptation of ADAS. Further, this study applied the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to assess drivers’ intentions to use ADAS within the next month. Participants were required to have purchased a new or second-hand vehicle within the past five years and which had at least one of the following five ADAS: autonomous emergency braking, lane departure warning, adaptive cruise control, blind spot monitoring, and rear cross traffic alert. Participants (N = 217, Mage = 47.87 years, 149 male) completed a 20-minute online questionnaire. The findings revealed that 122 (56%) participants reported not seeking out any information about ADAS prior to purchasing their vehicle. Further, the most reported approaches used by participants to learn about their vehicle’s ADAS were through the owner’s manual (n = 121, 55%) and via trial and error (n = 117, 54%). It was also found that total time spent with the salesperson in explaining ADAS features did not influence drivers’ level of understanding of ADAS or number of days to adapt to the ADAS in their vehicle. However, and consistent with the TAM, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were significant positive predictors of intentions to use ADAS within the next month. It was also found that participants who learnt about these technologies either via reading the owner’s manual, trial and error, or a verbal explanation at point of sale appeared to be more frequently classified as reporting higher acceptance of ADAS than those participants who did not use those learning methods. Given that technology in vehicles will continue to advance, it is vital that more work is conducted to educate drivers about the functionality of ADAS. Further, it is also important to communicate where buyers of personal cars can go and find accurate and reliable information about ADAS.     

The Evaluative Factor of Risk Perception

This study was aimed at identifying an evaluative factor in perceived risk that was independent of the previously identified Dread and Knowledge factors. The methodology used was that developed by Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein (1985a) with the addition of four new dimensions: personal position, economic justification, justification through well-being, and beneficial to society. This evaluative factor was identified, and loads the four above-mentioned dimensions while excluding 11 others. This evaluative factor primarily emerges as a major determinant in subjects' demands for risk control legislation.     

Evaluating the Equal-Interval Hypothesis with Test Score Scales

The axioms of additive conjoint measurement provide a means of testing the hypothesis that testing data can be placed onto a scale with equal-interval properties. However, the axioms are difficult to verify given that item responses may be subject to measurement error. A Bayesian method exists for imposing order restrictions from additive conjoint measurement while estimating the probability of a correct response. In this study an improved version of that methodology is evaluated via simulation. The approach is then applied to data from a reading assessment intentionally designed to support an equal-interval scaling.     

A comparison of computational driver models using naturalistic and test-track data from cyclist-overtaking manoeuvres

The improvement of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and their safety assessment rely on the understanding of scenario-dependent driving behaviours, such as steering to avoid collisions.This study compares driver models that predict when a driver starts steering away to overtake a cyclist on rural roads. The comparison is among four models: a threshold model, an accumulator model, and two models inspired by a proportional-integral and proportional-integral-derivative controller. These models were tested and cross-applied using two different datasets: one from a naturalistic driving (ND) study and one from a test-track (TT) experiment. Two perceptual variables, expansion rate (the horizontal angular expansion rate of the image of the lead road user on the driver’s retina) and inverse tau (the ratio between the image’s expansion rate and its horizontal optical size), were tested as input to the models. A linear cost function is proposed that can obtain the optimal parameters of the models by computationally efficient linear programming.The results show that the models based on inverse tau fitted the data better than the models that included expansion rate. In general, the models fitted the ND data reasonably well, but not as well the TT data. For the ND data, the models including an accumulative component outperformed the threshold model. For the TT data, due to the poorer fit of the models, more analysis is required to determine the merit of the models. The models fitted to TT data captured the overall pattern of steering onsets in the ND data rather well, but with a persistent bias, probably due to the drivers employing a more cautious strategy in TT.The models compared in this paper may support the virtual safety assessment of ADAS so that driver behaviour may be considered in the design and evaluation of new safety systems.     

Adaptive warning signals adjusted to driver passenger conversation: Impact of system awareness on behavioral adaptations

The study investigated behavioral adaptation caused by warning signals that adaptively support drivers engaged in a passenger conversation. Novel advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) could monitor the driver state to provide warnings adjusted to the driver’s current need for support. While first research indicates positive effects of dynamically adjusting ADAS, the overall safety potential of such adaptive systems remains unclear as little is known about adverse behavioral effects. Occasional inappropriate support due to an incorrect prediction of the current driver state might lead to critical situations when drivers are aware of the adaptive nature of the system and thus rely on the expected system behavior. To better understand behavioral adaptation to dynamically adjusting warnings, 46 participants driving on a test track reacted to two types of warnings (auditory, vibrotactile-auditory) while engaging in driver-passenger conversation or not. In a compensating warning strategy, vibrotactile-auditory warnings were displayed during conversations and auditory warnings in situations without conversation. This strategy was compared to a non-compensating warning strategy in which these assignments were reversed. The impact of behavioral adaptation was measured by considering reactions to simulated failures of these strategies. The role of system awareness for behavioral adaptation was investigated by manipulating awareness of these warning strategies across groups. We found that vibrotactile-auditory warnings reduced the detrimental effects of conversation on reaction times. Crucially, adverse behavioral adaptation was observed whenever an expected vibrotactile-auditory warning was replaced by an auditory warning but this effect was restricted to drivers in the awareness group. The results show that adaptive warning signals optimize the effectiveness of warnings during driver-passenger conversation but adverse behavioral adaptation develops when drivers are aware of the underlying warning strategy. This implies that future adaptive systems are less likely to be associated with behavioral adaptation if the adaptive nature of the system remains unnoticeable to the driver. Our findings could be used for developing and optimizing user-centered ADAS.     

Driver trust in and training for advanced driver assistance systems in Real-World driving

Two-hundred and twenty-three participants completed an online survey regarding their experiences with advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) on their personal vehicles, with focus on 1) drivers’ trust in 13 ADAS technologies, and 2) perceived effectiveness of currently used methods of training. Eighteen drivers participated in focus groups designed to probe more deeply into survey responses. Results of the survey showed that participant ratings of trust increased significantly with longer vehicle ownership, but participants who experienced unexpected ADAS technology behavior rated their trust over time significantly lower on ADAS technologies with the exception of rear collision avoidance. The majority (75.8%) of participants reported receiving some ADAS instruction at their vehicle dealership, but only 16.6% indicated it was formal. Participants who received formalized training reported it to be significantly more effective than those who received informal overviews of their systems. Use of trial and error and the owner’s manual were the most frequently reported methods of learning outside of dealership training. Responses indicated that the lack of content tailored to trim-specific vehicle features in owner’s manuals was a barrier to effective use.     

What Do We Tell the Children? Contrasting the Disclosure Choices of Two HD Families Regarding Risk Statusand Predictive Genetic Testing

Above all else, predictive genetic testing provides information. Gaining insight into the psychosocial effects of this information is a primary goal of genetic counseling. For individuals utilizing predictive genetic testing, the acquisition of genetic information requires choices regarding disclosure within the family. This study uses a phenomenological methodology to explore the contrasting choices of two sets of HD parents regarding the disclosure of genetic risk status to their children. Additionally, the children (now adults) discuss their lived experience growing up with contrasting disclosure dynamics, and their current views regarding the use of predictive genetic testing for themselves. The primary finding of this study is that all of the adult children now express preference for early disclosure of genetic risk and an open/supportive communication style regarding HD. This finding has value for clinicians working with HD families who must make decisions regarding disclosure issues related to predictive genetic testing.     

What Values in Design? The Challenge of Incorporating Moral Values into Design

Recently, there is increased attention to the integration of moral values into the conception, design, and development of emerging IT. The most reviewed approach for this purpose in ethics and technology so far is Value-Sensitive Design (VSD). This article considers VSD as the prime candidate for implementing normative considerations into design. Its methodology is considered from a conceptual, analytical, normative perspective. The focus here is on the suitability of VSD for integrating moral values into the design of technologies in a way that joins in with an analytical perspective on ethics of technology. Despite its promising character, it turns out that VSD falls short in several respects: (1) VSD does not have a clear methodology for identifying stakeholders, (2) the integration of empirical methods with conceptual research within the methodology of VSD is obscure, (3) VSD runs the risk of committing the naturalistic fallacy when using empirical knowledge for implementing values in design, (4) the concept of values, as well as their realization, is left undetermined and (5) VSD lacks a complimentary or explicit ethical theory for dealing with value trade-offs. For the normative evaluation of a technology, I claim that an explicit and justified ethical starting point or principle is required. Moreover, explicit attention should be given to the value aims and assumptions of a particular design. The criteria of adequacy for such an approach or methodology follow from the evaluation of VSD as the prime candidate for implementing moral values in design.     

Exact tests for the rasch model via sequential importance sampling

Rasch proposed an exact conditional inference approach to testing his model but never implemented it because it involves the calculation of a complicated probability. This paper furthers Rasch’s approach by (1) providing an efficient Monte Carlo methodology for accurately approximating the required probability and (2) illustrating the usefulness of Rasch’s approach for several important testing problems through simulation studies. Our Monte Carlo methodology is shown to compare favorably to other Monte Carlo methods proposed for this problem in two respects: it is considerably faster and it provides more reliable estimates of the Monte Carlo standard error.This Research was supported in part by National Science Foundation grant DMS-0203762 and a University of Pennsylvania Research Foundation grant.The authors are grateful to Don Burdick for helpful comments. In addition, the authors wish to thank the editor, the associate editor, and the referees for their helpful suggestions.This revised article was published online in August 2005 with the PDF paginated correctly.     

可修改答案的认知诊断计算机化自适应测验研究

允许修改答案的认知诊断计算机化自适应测验(Reviewable Cognitive Diagnostic Computerized Adaptive Testing,RCD-CAT),有利于更准确诊断被试的知识状态,题目口袋法(Item Pocket,IP)为被试提供了缓存作答并修改的机会,改进的题目口袋法(Modified IP,MIP)对IP内修改的题目重新计分。模拟研究比较了IP、MIP、stocking Ⅰ和stocking Ⅱ在RCD-CAT效果,结果发现:stocking设计的效果最优,其中stocking Ⅱ的效果略优于stocking Ⅰ,IP法和MIP法判准率要低于传统CD-CAT,stocking设计在RCD-CAT具有较好的应用前景。     

Presymptomatic Genetic Testing with an APP Mutation in Early-Onset Alzheimer Disease: A Descriptive Study of Sibship Dynamics

Early-onset Alzheimer disease (AD) accounts for only 5% of all cases of Alzheimer disease. To date, mutations in three different genes, the Amyloid precursor protein (APP), Presenilin 1 (PS1), and Presenilin 2 (PS2), have been identified as causative in early-onset AD, making predictive testing possible. Predictive testing for early-onset Alzheimer disease is a relatively new phenomenon. This paper describes the process of identifying a new mutation in the APP gene associated with early-onset AD, notifying family members, and offering participation in research as well as predictive testing. The goal is to share the complexities of predictive testing in a sibship newly identified as being at risk for an adult-onset, incurable neurodegenerative disease.     

The maximum priority index method for severely constrained item selection in computerized adaptive testing

This paper introduces a new heuristic approach, the maximum priority index (MPI) method, for severely constrained item selection in computerized adaptive testing. Our simulation study shows that it is able to accommodate various non‐statistical constraints simultaneously, such as content balancing, exposure control, answer key balancing, and so on. Compared with the weighted deviation modelling method, it leads to fewer constraint violations and better exposure control while maintaining the same level of measurement precision.     

Psychomotor abilities via touch‐panel testing: Measurement innovations,construct, and criterion validity

Assessment of psychomotor abilities for prediction of human performance is briefly reviewed. Reasons for the abandonment of psychomotor testing for selection applications are described. We review innovations in touch‐sensitive computer monitors as a methodology for relatively low‐cost, highly flexible test development, validation, and application of standard psychomotor tests. The development and evaluation of 5 psychomotor test types are described including discrete response tests (choice‐simple reaction time [RT], serial RT, and tapping) and continuous‐response tests (maze tracing and mirror tracing). Two empirical studies of the new psychomotor tests are presented, with a broad array of perceptual speed and cognitive abilities providing evidence for construct validity. In addition, some of the psychomotor tests are validated against a real‐time simulation criterion (the Kanfer‐Ackerman Air Traffic Controller Task©). We argue that these new innovations provide a means toward revisiting psychomotor testing to augment employee selection batteries.     

The effect of visual HMIs of a system assisting manual drivers in manoeuvre coordination in system limit and system failure situations

Ambiguous situations in traffic often require communication and cooperation between road users. In order to resolve these situations and increase cooperative driving behavior in situations of merging or turning left, manual drivers could be assisted by an advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) for cooperative driving. This simulator study investigated the behavior of drivers confronted with system limits and failures of such a system. The ADAS used in this study informed the driver about an upcoming cooperation situation and gave advice on how to behave (e.g. reduce speed, change lane). Two test situations were implemented: a system freeze and an unexpected event, which could not be detected by the system. In order to find the most fitting HMI solution, the place of presentation (head-up display (HUD) vs. instrument cluster) as well as the form of presentation (dynamic vs. symbolic) were varied. The results indicated that the most fitting HMI solution to support the driver in a complex coordinated driving situation is a dynamic HUD, mainly due to the positive effect on glance behavior. However, advantages of both forms of presentation were revealed, as each form of presentation increased the probability of recognition for one of the test situations. The fewest collisions took place with the dynamic form of presentation.     

Improving Professional Selling Effectiveness through the Alignment of Buyer and Seller Exchange Approaches

Salespeople employ transactional- and relational-oriented approaches to maximize sales productivity. However, relatively little is known about situational factors that affect the success of these alternative approaches. This research begins with an exploratory study that differentiates transactional and relational selling as unique approaches and develops applicable measures. A second study employs a dyadic methodology linking the success of these alternative approaches with the buyer’s strategic purchasing orientation. Results of testing support sales organization performance as being contingent upon the buying firm’s supply market risk and commodity profit impact and therefore suggests the firm should allocate regional resources primarily where buyer’s market risk or profit impact are high. The findings provide an alternative perspective to common customer valuation arguments suggesting the allocation of relational resources should be based on the customer’s value to the selling firm.