Testing VBN theory in Japan: Relationships between values,beliefs, norms,and acceptability and expected effects of a car pricing policy

The VBN (value-belief-norm) theory of environmentalism postulates that values influence pro-environmental behaviour via pro-environmental beliefs and personal norms. A few studies provided support for the theory in explaining pro-environmental behaviour in Europe and Latin America. Beyond these studies, the question remains to what extent the VBN theory can also explain pro-environmental beliefs, norms, and behaviour in other cultures. This study tests the VBN theory in Japan and demonstrates that, as expected, the more people endorse biospheric values, the stronger they believe that car use has negative environmental impacts, the more they feel responsible for the problems caused by car use, and the more they feel personally obliged to reduce their car use. In contrast, stronger hedonic and, to a lesser extent, stronger egoistic values were related to less strong pro-environmental beliefs and norms. Furthermore, support was found for the mediation effects of pro-environmental beliefs in the relationships between hedonic and biospheric value orientations and norms. The VBN theory explained the acceptability and expected effects of a car pricing policy on an individual’s transport choices, but less strongly than in previous studies. Interestingly, biospheric and hedonic values not only predicted adjacent beliefs, but also other beliefs and norms farther down the causal chain, suggesting that values play an important role in promoting sustainable mobility.     

Factors influencing car use for commuting and the intention to reduce it: A question of self-interest or morality?

Car use for commuting contributes to various environmental and traffic problems, such as pollution and congestion. Policies aimed at reducing commuter car use will be more effective when they target important determinants of car use and willingness to reduce it. This study examined whether variables reflecting self-interest (from the theory of planned behavior [Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 11–39). Berlin: Springer]) and variables reflecting moral considerations (from the norm-activation model [Schwartz, S. H. (1977). Normative influences on altruism. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 221–279). New York: Academic Press]) were able to explain self-reported car use for commuting and intentions to reduce it in a sample of Canadian office workers. Car use for commuting was mostly explained by variables related to individual outcomes (perceived behavioral control and attitudes) whereas the intention to reduce car use was mostly explained by variables related to morality (personal norms). The study also found that perceived behavioral control moderated the relation between personal norms and behavioral intentions: stronger personal norms were associated with stronger behavioral intentions, but only when perceived behavioral control was low. Some issues evoked by these results are discussed.     

From car use reduction to ride-sharing: The relevance of moral and environmental identity

Car use contributes significantly to environmental pollution, leading people to rethink their transport habits. Previous studies on car use reduction relied on established theories related to values and self-regulation to examine this decision. In this paper, we offer an alternative approach and examine the intention to reduce car use through the prism of identity theory, and propose environmental and moral identities, together with environmental concern, as the main antecedents to the importance of car use reduction and intention to reduce car use. Further, we consider ride-sharing intention as an outcome of the decision to reduce car use. The proposed conceptual model is tested on a sample of consumers from the United Kingdom using an online consumer panel. The results offer partial support for the influence of moral identity, environmental identity, and environmental concern on the importance to reduce car use and intention. The links among the importance of and intention to reduce car use, along with ride-sharing intentions, are supported. Finally, managerial implications are discussed, and future research directions are suggested.     

The role of affect in UK commuters' travel mode choices: An interpretative phenomenological analysis

Previous research has suggested that the choice between public transport and private car use is not solely based on utility considerations, such as time and cost. However, affective considerations tend not to be targeted in policy interventions to reduce car use. This may be due, in part, to a lack of clarity about which affective responses to car use are important and how they may affect willingness to switch to public transport. This study sought to clarify the role of affective responses in transport mode choice. An interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) of car users' accounts was conducted to (i) explore affect associated with decisions to drive or use public transport to get to work; and (ii) describe the role of affect on such transport decisions, and its relationship to utility considerations. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with 18 car users employed at a medium‐sized UK university. Four affect themes were identified: These were journey‐based affect (JBA), personal space, autonomy and identity. Typical ‘utility’ factors such as time, cost and reliability had important affective effects, and these were considered alongside utility components (e.g. getting to work on time). However, these effects were not always additive, and the role of affect depended on participants' own assessment of their circumstances. Implications for interventions are discussed.     

In the driving seat: psychosocial benefits from private motor vehicle transport compared to public transport

The aim of current transport policy in the UK and many other developed countries is to reduce reliance on private motor vehicle transport in order to promote public health and reduce environmental degradation. Despite the emphasis in these policies on the unhealthiness of private motor car use, epidemiological studies have consistently shown that car access is associated with longevity and better health. We examine this paradox using a postal survey of adults in the West of Scotland (n=2043, m=896, f=1147) to investigate the psychosocial benefits associated with private and public motor vehicle transport. Those with access to a car appear to gain more psychosocial benefits (mastery, self esteem, and feelings of autonomy, protection, and prestige) than public transport users from their habitual mode of transport. Being a car driver conferred more benefits than being a passenger, except for self esteem which was only associated with driving among men. Self-esteem was also associated with type of car among men but not women. This study suggests that if people are to be encouraged to reduce private motor vehicle use, policies need to take into account some of the psychosocial benefits people might derive from such use.     

What drives car use? A grounded theory analysis of commuters’ reasons for driving

A grounded theory analysis of reasons for driving to work was undertaken following semi-structured interviews with 19 regular private car commuters in a small English city. Five core motives were identified: journey time concerns; journey-based affect; effort minimisation; personal space concerns; and monetary costs. An underlying desire for control underpinned many of these motives. The analysis revealed misconceptions regarding journey times and control in relation to car and public transport use, systematic underestimation of car-related monetary costs, and the importance of self- and identity-relevant consequences in relation to transport policy acceptance. Drivers’ motives and misconceptions are discussed in light of transport demand management policies.     

Modelling acceptability of the intelligent speed adapter

The Intelligent Speed Adapter (ISA) is an example of in-car telematics equipment that is developed to reduce speeding. It can be introduced as a policy instrument to improve speed limit compliance and with that traffic safety. However, previous research indicated that acceptability of this type of instruments is rather limited. Adopting a policy that may increase acceptability before introduction of the instrument is therefore recommended. To formulate such a policy, understanding the factors that influence ISA acceptability is required. To that effect, a causal model that disentangles the direct and indirect effects of predictor variables on ISA acceptability is developed and estimated. The model includes car drivers’ attitudes, opinions and beliefs on the speeding problem, the policy goal and the policy instrument ISA, as well as speed related behaviour and socio-demographic variables. This paper presents the direct and total effects of these variables on ISA acceptability. The results suggest that explaining clearly how ISA can contribute to attaining various personal and societal goals may be a viable policy to increase ISA acceptability.     

Identity and travel behaviour: A cross-sectional study on commute mode choice and intention to change

IntroductionSocial and self-identities have been conceptualised to prevent travel behaviour change, as threats to one’s identity may cause resistance to change. This study focuses on the role of social, transport, place, and self-identities on commute mode choice and intention to change mode choice.MethodData were collected in June 2015 in Utrecht, the Netherlands. Invitations to participate were distributed by mail using data from the municipality, resulting in 1062 adult participants.The outcome measures were the transport mode shares based on a 14-day travel-to-and-from-work record of trips (i) involving any car use, (ii) involving any bicycling, (iii) involving any walking, and (iv) involving any public transport use. The second series of outcome measures concerned the willingness to change the amount of car use, bicycle use and walking, determined by the question ‘to what extent do you intend to change the use of …?’. Identity was measured on a seven-point disagree/agree scale for 17 items by asking to what extent the respondent ‘sees him/herself as …’. Separate multinomial regression models were estimated stepwise adjusting for socioeconomic and transport characteristics.ResultsMultiple identity items were associated with the use of all commute modes. In the maximally adjusted models, identities associated with the respective modes remained significant. For example, whether someone identified themselves with being a cyclist corresponded with higher likelihood of cycling occasionally (relative risk ratio (RRR): 1.84; 95% confidence interval (CI):1.47–2.30), or always to work (RRR: 2.86; 95% CI: 2.16–3.79). In addition, we found that a family-oriented identity was negatively associated with occasional commuting by car, and a ‘sporty’ identity was negatively associated with always cycling to work.Transport identities were also associated with stated intentions to change as were several social, place, and self-identities. Identifying with being a car driver decreased the likelihood of intending to reduce car use, but it increased the likelihood of intending to increase car use, as did identifying with being career-oriented. Individuals that identified with being a cyclist were less likely to have an intention to reduce bicycle use, whereas countryside-lovers had greater intentions of increasing cycling. Individuals that identified themselves as pedestrians had a lower intention of decreasing their walking levels, and a higher intention of increasing them, as did those who identified themselves as being family-oriented.DiscussionThe results confirm limited previous findings that identifying with users of a transport mode correspond with its use. Nevertheless, questions around causality remain. The intention to change mode choice was associated with several identities, including transport-related identities, place-related identities, social/family-related identities, and self-identities. Future research should focus on the associations between identity and actual behaviour change to further our understanding of the effect of identity on travel behaviour.     

Expected car use reduction in response to structural travel demand management measures

Selecting the appropriate travel demand management (TDM) measures aiming to reduce the environmental problems associated with private transportation demands a thorough understanding of the behavioral consequences of different measures. In this scenario based study, the expected car use reduction in response to one push measure (i.e. raised tax on fossil fuel), one pull measure (i.e. improved public transport), and a combination of the two measures were analyzed. The aim was to compare the expected car use reduction in response to the different TDM measures, the car use reduction strategies used to achieve this reduction, and factors important for the expected car use reduction (i.e. background factors, internal motivational factors (general intention and personal norm), and perceived personal impact of the measure). In a two step between-subject design, a sample of car users first answered a pre-questionnaire and subsequently three groups of car users (N = 274) each evaluated one of the TDM measures. Results demonstrated that the combined measure led to larger expected car use reduction compared to the measures evaluated individually and the reduction was mainly expected to be made by means of trip chaining and changing travel mode. Moreover, internal motivational factors, such as personal norm or general intention, and the perceived impact of the measure, were found to be important for the expected car use reduction in response to the TDM measures.     

How satisfying is the Scale for Travel Satisfaction?

The Satisfaction with Travel Scale (STS) has recently been developed to measure people’s satisfaction with travel. It supposedly consists of two affective and one cognitive dimension. As there have only been a few tests of its reliability and structure to date, this paper reports new tests using data on leisure trips from Ghent (Belgium). Differences in the reliability and structure of the STS by transport mode – car, public transport, bicycling and walking – are also considered. Overall, the results suggest that the specification of a single underlying dimension for affect rather than two offers a superior fit to the Ghent data, both for all modes combined and for car use and cycling separately. For public transport and walking a three-dimensional structure is more appropriate although individuals items do not load on the two affective dimensions as expected. Differences between previous studies and ours are partly caused by differences in how two of the scale’s items – alert/tired and confident/worried – are correlated with the other items. Future studies using the STS may want to adapt the structure of STS by omitting some items or replacing them with alternatives as this may reduce respondent burden and increase internal consistency of the STS.     

Contrasting the Theory of Planned Behavior With the Value‐Belief‐Norm Model in Explaining Conservation Behavior1

In this paper, we contrast the value‐belief‐norm (VBN) model and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) for the first time regarding their ability to explain conservation behavior. The participants represent a convenience sample of 468 university students. Using survey data and adopting previously established compound measures, structural equation analyses revealed a remarkable explanatory power for both theories: TPB's intention accounted for 95% of people's conservation behavior and VBN's personal norms accounted for 64%. Compared to the VBN model, the TPB covered its concepts more fully in terms of proportions of explained variance. More importantly, the fit statistics revealed that only the TPB depicts the relations among its concepts appropriately, whereas the VBN model does not.     

How do public transport users adjust their travel behaviour if public transport ceases? A qualitative study

Mode shift from public transport (PT) to private car when a PT shut-down occurs results in an increase in the number of car trips on the road network which may contribute to traffic congestion. Policies aimed at reducing the mode shift to car can be designed through a better understanding of PT users’ mode shift in the event of a PT disruption. Furthermore, the share of car mode shift is also an important parameter for assessing traffic congestion relief associated with day to day PT provision in cities. This study sought to uncover factors influencing the mode shift to car among PT users in the event of a PT disruption. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30PT users from Melbourne, Australia. Grounded theory was used to derive categories and subcategories of behavioural responses. Factors affecting mode shift to car if PT ceases in the short term were classified into three main themes with several subcategories: individual-specific factors, context-specific factors and journey-specific factors. In the long term, the analysis reveals that only context-specific factors have an influence on mode shift. Findings show that car access, travel time, travel cost, trip importance, non-central business district (CBD) trips, weather, flexibility and accessibility to PT stations are the most important factors favouring use of the car if PT ceases in the short term. This acts to increase traffic congestion due to the mode shift to car. However, in the long term, removing PT is expected to have an impact on land use, leading to individuals changing their residential and workplace location.     

Reflections on the interface of bioethics, public policy and science

This paper discusses the role of ethical considerations in the formulation of public policies aimed at shaping the scientific agenda. Specifically, new and controversial public policy issues will confront us in the twenty-first century as the result of developments on the frontiers of biomedical science. Some of the anxieties in the ethical arena generated by the rapid pace of these developments are likely to result in efforts to place constraints on the shape of the scientific agenda and the application of new knowledge. Our moral propositions, therefore, will be tested and re-tested in their application to evolving social, cultural, and historical circumstances and the ever-changing technological context.     

Users of different travel modes differ in journey satisfaction and habit strength but not environmental worldviews: A large-scale survey of drivers,walkers, bicyclists and bus users commuting to a UK university

People who travel to the same university workplace by bicycle, bus, car, and walking were compared in a survey (N = 1609). Data are presented on environmental worldviews, journey affective appraisals, and habit strength. Unexpectedly, findings showed comparable levels of environmental worldview across modes. This might reflect the role of attitudes on behaviour, or question the validity of the established environmental worldview scale used here. Results also replicated previous work on affective appraisal, and suggested that whilst walking, bicycling and bus use have distinctive affective appraisals associated with each mode, car driving was affectively neutral, generating no strong response on any dimension – a finding tentatively explained with reference to the normative status of driving. The survey also showed users of active travel modes reported stronger habit strength than car or public transport users, with possible links to the role of affect in formulating habit strength in line with habit theory.     

How Politicians’ Reelection Efforts Can Reduce Public Trust,Electoral Support,and Policy Approval

Politicians’ desire for reelection motivates them to be responsive to voters’ policy preferences. In the traditional view, voters choose between candidates based on their delivery of favorable outcomes such as ideologically appealing policies or a prospering economy. However, research in psychology shows that, in addition to outcomes, people care about procedural fairness and, particularly, impartial decision‐makers who make decisions without personal motives and interests. This, I argue, confronts politicians with a delicate task: politicians must present voters with favorable policy outcomes but without appearing as if they pursue these policies based on a personal, vote‐maximizing motive for reelection. In four survey experiments, I find support for this argument. Participants were significantly less inclined to trust and vote for politicians and support their policies when political decisions were described as motivated by reelection considerations than when no such motive was present. The findings advance our understanding of how citizens view political representation and have important implications for research on public opinion, legislative behavior, and democratic theory.     

Using the UTAUT2 model to explain public acceptance of conditionally automated (L3) cars: A questionnaire study among 9,118 car drivers from eight European countries

We investigated public acceptance of conditionally automated (SAE Level 3) passenger cars using a questionnaire study among 9,118 car-drivers in eight European countries, as part of the European L3Pilot project. 71.06% of respondents considered conditionally automated cars easy to use while 28.03% of respondents planned to buy a conditionally automated car once it is available. 41.85% of respondents would like to use the time in the conditionally automated car for secondary activities. Among these 41.85%, respondents plan to talk to fellow travellers (44.76%), surf the internet, watch videos or TV shows (44%), observe the landscape (41.70%), and work (17.06%). The UTAUT2 (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) was applied to investigate the effects of performance and effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, and hedonic motivation on the behavioural intention to use conditionally automated cars. Structural equation analysis revealed that the UTAUT2 can be applied to conditional automation, with hedonic motivation, social influence, and performance expectancy influencing the behavioural intention to buy and use a conditionally automated car. The present study also found positive effects of facilitating conditions on effort expectancy and hedonic motivation. Social influence was a positive predictor of hedonic motivation, facilitating conditions, and performance expectancy. Age, gender and experience with advanced driver assistance systems had significant, yet small (<0.10), effects on behavioural intention. The implications of these results on the policy and best practices to enable large-scale implementation of conditionally automated cars on public roads are discussed.     

‘We don't do God’: A critical retrospective of New Labour's approaches to ‘religion or belief’ and ‘faith’

Given that Tony Blair was once infamously told by an aide that in Britain ‘we don't do God’, the New Labour Government that he led was responsible for developing and implementing a series of policies that brought religion firmly into British political spaces. Adopting two policy approaches, these approaches focused on ‘religion or belief’ and ‘faith’. Alongside the incorporation of ‘religion and belief’ into the broadening equalities framework, New Labour encouraged greater engagement with faith communities initially through urban regeneration before implementing a more faith-specific programme, namely the interfaith framework. Drawing on three research projects, this article retrospectively considers the extent to which these approaches were joined up and whether – and indeed how – they contributed to New Labour's overarching measurements of success: creating a more equal society.     

Who buys New Energy Vehicles in China? Assessing social-psychological predictors of purchasing awareness,intention, and policy

This paper investigates the salience of social-psychological factors in explaining why drivers purchase (or fail to purchase) New Energy Vehicles (NEVs)—including hybrid electric vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and fuel cell electric vehicles—in China. A questionnaire measuring six dimensions (including attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, personal norms, low-carbon awareness and policy) was distributed in Tianjin, where aggressive policy incentives for NEVs exist yet adoption rates remain low. Correlation analysis and hierarchical multiple regression analyses are applied data collected through 811 valid questionnaires. We present three main findings. First, there is an “awareness-behavior gap” whereby low-carbon awareness has a slight moderating effect on purchasing behavior via psychological factors. Second, subjective norms has a stronger influence on intention to purchase New Energy Vehicles than other social-psychological factors. Third, acceptability of government policies has positive significant impact on adoption of New Energy Vehicles, which can provide reference potential template for other countries whose market for New Energy Vehicles is also in an early stage.