Memory for ideas: Synonym substitution

Subjects memorized sentences that contained a word with a synonym in English. There were large numbers of synonym substitution responses in recall (varying from 6.0% in Experiment I to 27.7% in Experiment III). Synonym substitution responses tended to be unidirectional and occurred with roughly equal frequency in abstract and concrete sentences. The results were interpreted as opposed to surface structure theories of sentence memory, since explanation in terms of word associations and sequential dependencies proved unsuccessful. The results were also taken to be opposed to image theories of sentence memory, since image theories predict few ff any synonym substitution responses for abstract sentences, while Experiment III found large numbers of synonym substitutions in both abstract and concrete sentences. The results support the position that memory for sentences is in terms of nonlinguistic, nonimage, abstract representations (ideas).     

发展性协调障碍与书写困难个案研究

该研究对一个14岁书写困难儿童zl的动作和认知技能进行了系统的考察。zl的书写困难主要表现在以下几方面：书写速度慢,字与字之间的空间距离非常近,字迹难以辨认,笔画顺序混乱。该研究首先测查了zl的基本智能和一系列精细动作技能、视觉、视空以及序列加工能力。结果发现他的基本智能、视觉加工能力正常,动作技能和视空加工能力皆显著落后于控制组儿童。语言能力测试发现,他的识字量、阅读理解和听力理解均正常。他在汉字单字、双字词、数字和图片命名上的正确率与控制组没有显著差异,但命名速度明显慢于控制组。神经生理检查发现,他的脑电波轻度异常,核磁共振扫描(MRI)显示双侧脑室体后部和枕角周围白质和小脑发育异常。这些结果表明该儿童的书写困难是更广泛的动作协调障碍的一种体现,并可能以他的脑神经发育状况为基础。文章讨论了zl书写障碍的认知神经机制及对书写障碍早期鉴别和训练的意义。     

Two modes of transfer in artificial grammar learning

Participants can transfer grammatical knowledge acquired implicitly in 1 vocabulary to new sequences instantiated in both the same and a novel vocabulary. Two principal theories have been advanced to account for these effects. One suggests that sequential dependencies form the basis for cross-domain transfer (e.g., Z. Dienes, G. T. M. Altmann, & S. J. Gao, 1999). Another argues that a form of episodic memory known as abstract analogy is sufficient (e.g., L. R. Brooks & J. R. Vokey, 1991). Three experiments reveal the contributions of the 2. In Experiment 1 sequential dependencies form the only basis for transfer. Experiment 2 demonstrates that this process is impaired by a change in the distributional properties of the language. Experiment 3 demonstrates that abstract analogy of repetition structure is relatively immune to such a change. These findings inform theories of artificial grammar learning and the transfer of grammatical knowledge.     

Do attitudes toward societal structure predict beliefs about free will and achievement? Evidence from the Indian caste system

Intuitive theories about the malleability of intellectual ability affect our motivation and achievement in life. But how are such theories shaped by the culture in which an individual is raised? We addressed this question by exploring how Indian children's and adults’ attitudes toward the Hindu caste system – and its deterministic worldview – are related to differences in their intuitive theories. Strikingly, we found that, beginning at least in middle school and continuing into adulthood, individuals who placed more importance on caste were more likely to adopt deterministic intuitive theories. We also found a developmental change in the scope of this relationship, such that in children, caste attitudes were linked only to abstract beliefs about personal freedom, but that by adulthood, caste attitudes were also linked to beliefs about the potential achievement of members of different castes, personal intellectual ability, and personality attributes. These results are the first to directly relate the societal structure in which a person is raised to the specific intuitive theories they adopt.     

Processing mode influences the relationship between trait rumination and emotional vulnerability

Watkins (2004) found that the mode of processing adopted during expressive writing following a failure influenced emotional recovery from the failure as a function of level of trait rumination. At higher levels of trait rumination, negative mood 12 hours after the failure was greater, but only in an abstract, evaluative writing condition and not in a concrete, process-focused condition. The current study examined whether this interaction of trait rumination with processing mode would generalize to emotional vulnerability to a subsequent negative stressor. Participants repeatedly focused on both positive and negative scenarios in either a concrete, process-focused or an abstract, evaluative mode, before a failure experience. As predicted, after the failure experience, higher levels of trait rumination were associated with lower levels of positive affect, but only for participants in the abstract, evaluative condition and not for participants in the concrete, process-focused condition. This finding is consistent with processing mode influencing the relationship between trait rumination and emotional vulnerability.     

Computer‐based teaching of Kanji construction and writing in a student with developmental disabilities

Students with developmental disabilities often have difficulty with writing skills such as tracing, copying, and dictation writing. A student with writing difficulties participated in the present study, which used computer‐based teaching applied in the home. We examined whether a student could copy Japanese Kanji characters after training with a constructed response matching‐to‐sample (CRMTS) procedure. The procedure was designed to teach identity Kanji construction. The results showed that the student not only acquired the constructed responses through this procedure but also to spelling generalized to copy trained and untrained Kanji characters. The results are discussed in terms of the effect of the CRMTS procedure on the acquisition and transfer of writing characters and the applicability of computer‐based home teaching. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Language Processing Differences Between Blind and Sighted Individuals and the Abstract Versus Concrete Concept Difference

In the property listing task (PLT), participants are asked to list properties for a concept (e.g., for the concept dog, “barks,” and “is a pet” may be produced). In conceptual property norming (CPNs) studies, participants are asked to list properties for large sets of concepts. Here, we use a mathematical model of the property listing process to explore two longstanding issues: characterizing the difference between concrete and abstract concepts, and characterizing semantic knowledge in the blind versus sighted population. When we apply our mathematical model to a large CPN reporting properties listed by sighted and blind participants, the model uncovers significant differences between concrete and abstract concepts. Though we also find that blind individuals show many of the same processing differences between abstract and concrete concepts found in sighted individuals, our model shows that those differences are noticeably less pronounced than in sighted individuals. We discuss our results vis-a-vis theories attempting to characterize abstract concepts.     

Deep agraphia

A case of agraphia is documented which resembles in every respect the pattern of results obtained in deep dyslexia. Pronounceable pseudowords could not be written to dictation while concrete nouns were more accurately transcribed than abstract nouns. Verbs and functions words were written very poorly and oral spelling was impaired. In addition, semantic paragraphias were present. In contrast to the deficit observed in writing, no such impairment was found for reading. It is concluded that writing can occur without phoneme-grapheme conversion and that codes generated for reading are functionally distinct from codes generated for writing.     

Is writing affected by spelling performance and beliefs about spelling?

This study examined relations between self-efficacy and outcome expectancy beliefs and spelling and writing performance. Perceptions about spelling and writing were assessed in 258 collegeage participants. Spelling performance was measured through a 50-item spelling test and writing performance by a holistically scored writing sample. The most highly correlated variables included spelling outcome expectancy and writing outcome expectancy, spelling selfefficacy and writing self-efficacy, spelling performance and spelling self-efficacy, and spelling and writing performance. A causal model relating perceptions, spelling performance, and writing performance was proposed and its appropriateness estimated. Direct effects on spelling were found for spelling self-efficacy, while spelling self-efficacy had indirect effects on writing performance and spelling had a direct effect on writing performance. The causal model was discussed in terms of changing conceptions of writing instruction and traditional views of the role of spelling as a necessary component of good writing.     

Aging effects in sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects during execution of memory strategies

In this study, we asked young adults and older adults to encode pairs of words. For each item, they were told which strategy to use, interactive imagery or rote repetition. Data revealed poorer-strategy effects in both young adults and older adults: Participants obtained better performance when executing better strategies (i.e., interactive-imagery strategy to encode pairs of concrete words; rote-repetition strategy on pairs of abstract words) than with poorer strategies (i.e., interactive-imagery strategy on pairs of abstract words; rote-repetition strategy on pairs of concrete words). Crucially, we showed that sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects (i.e., poorer-strategy effects being larger when previous items were encoded with better relative to poorer strategies), previously demonstrated in arithmetic, generalise to memory strategies. We also found reduced sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects in older adults relative to young adults. Finally, sequential modulations of poorer-strategy effects correlated with measures of cognitive control processes, suggesting that these processes underlie efficient trial-to-trial modulations during strategy execution. Differences in correlations with cognitive control processes were also found between older adults and young adults. These findings have important implications regarding mechanisms underlying memory strategy execution and age differences in memory performance.     

On coalition formation in simple games: A mathematical analysis of Caplow's and Gamson's theories

In this paper, we propose a theory of coalition formation in simple games. The process of coalition formation is modeled as an abstract game. Two solutions of abstract games, the core and the dynamic solution, are used as the predictions of our model. Two classical theories of coalitions in sociology due to Caplow and Gamson are reformulated in a more general and mathematical setting. These theories are then analyzed using the techniques of our theory.     

Ontologies and Worlds in Category Theory: Implications for Neural Systems

We propose category theory, the mathematical theory of structure, as a vehicle for defining ontologies in an unambiguous language with analytical and constructive features. Specifically, we apply categorical logic and model theory, based upon viewing an ontology as a sub-category of a category of theories expressed in a formal logic. In addition to providing mathematical rigor, this approach has several advantages. It allows the incremental analysis of ontologies by basing them in an interconnected hierarchy of theories, with an operation on the hierarchy that expresses the formation of complex theories from simple theories that express first principles. Another operation forms abstractions expressing the shared concepts in an array of theories. The use of categorical model theory makes possible the incremental analysis of possible worlds, or instances, for the theories, and the mapping of instances of a theory to instances of its more abstract parts. We describe the theoretical approach by applying it to the semantics of neural networks.     

盲人的时间水平方向隐喻的通道特异性

通过2个实验, 考察了感觉通道对盲人的时间水平方向隐喻的影响。实验1发现, 盲人只在动作水平上存在同阅读方向一致的时间水平方向隐喻, 对表征过去的词或句子按左键反应和对表征将来的词或句子按右键反应时更快, 表明盲人用于隐喻时间的空间信息是知觉性的。实验2比较了明眼人可视组被试和明眼人遮眼组被试的时间空间隐喻, 发现明眼人可视组被试只在动作水平上存在时间水平方向隐喻, 明眼人遮眼组被试只在刺激在右侧时呈现才出现动作水平的时间水平方向隐喻。综合分析表明, 盲人和明眼人可视组被试的反应更为接近, 表明盲人的时间空间隐喻未受听觉信息的影响。盲人通过运动通道获得的空间认知代偿了视觉通道信息的缺失。     

A Bayesian Theory of Sequential Causal Learning and Abstract Transfer

Two key research issues in the field of causal learning are how people acquire causal knowledge when observing data that are presented sequentially, and the level of abstraction at which learning takes place. Does sequential causal learning solely involve the acquisition of specific cause‐effect links, or do learners also acquire knowledge about abstract causal constraints? Recent empirical studies have revealed that experience with one set of causal cues can dramatically alter subsequent learning and performance with entirely different cues, suggesting that learning involves abstract transfer, and such transfer effects involve sequential presentation of distinct sets of causal cues. It has been demonstrated that pre‐training (or even post‐training) can modulate classic causal learning phenomena such as forward and backward blocking. To account for these effects, we propose a Bayesian theory of sequential causal learning. The theory assumes that humans are able to consider and use several alternative causal generative models, each instantiating a different causal integration rule. Model selection is used to decide which integration rule to use in a given learning environment in order to infer causal knowledge from sequential data. Detailed computer simulations demonstrate that humans rely on the abstract characteristics of outcome variables (e.g., binary vs. continuous) to select a causal integration rule, which in turn alters causal learning in a variety of blocking and overshadowing paradigms. When the nature of the outcome variable is ambiguous, humans select the model that yields the best fit with the recent environment, and then apply it to subsequent learning tasks. Based on sequential patterns of cue‐outcome co‐occurrence, the theory can account for a range of phenomena in sequential causal learning, including various blocking effects, primacy effects in some experimental conditions, and apparently abstract transfer of causal knowledge.     

The Sequential Combination of Pharmacotherapy and Psychotherapy in Mood Disorders

The aim of this review was to consider the literature concerned with a sequential use of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy in mood disorders. Review of the clinical trials where treatment components were used in a sequential order were identified by using MEDLINE, a manual search of the literature and the Index Medicus. In unipolar recurrent depression, the sequential use of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy was found to improve relapse rate. In bipolar disorder, the use of psychotherapeutic strategies in patients who were already assuming mood stabilizers was also found to yield clinical benefits. The sequential model has the potential for improving the logic and timing of interventions. A conceptual shift in current assessment methods (staging) is needed.     

An investigation of the nature of abstract concepts

Eight abstract concepts were submitted to a procedure designed to test the logical nature of their definition. The hypothesis that they would show a polymorphous prototype structure similar to that found for concrete categories (Hampton, 1979; Rosch & Mervis, 1975) was confirmed for five of the concepts. Reasons for the lack of fit of the prototype model to the remaining concepts and implications for the generality of existing theories of semantic memory are discussed.     

Information Context Structure and Risk Assessment

Abstract

Assessment of probabilistic values which comprise multidimensional attributes (e.g. risk) involves complex cognitive processes. This study explores the degree to which three informational context variables (nature of information, presentational conditions, and context structure), allocated according to a factorial design, affect risk assessment. The risk situation is represented by alarm over a potentially toxic cloud stagnating above a town, and is rated from 1 (negligible) to 10 (lethal) by subjects randomly assigned to one of the eight experimental modalities. Ratings are then processed by analysis of variance. Significant effect is found for the first variable (concrete information gives rise to significantly higher ratings than abstract information) and the second variable (sequential presentation leads to higher ratings), but the third variable would appear to have less functional impact. These results are discussed in the general framework of behavioural theories of decision-making, stressing the relevance of certain concepts and cognitive processes involved in risk assessment.     

Does lack of control lead to conspiracy beliefs? A meta-analysis

Perceived lack of control is widely believed to motivate, at least partly, belief in conspiracy theories. We question the theoretical foundations of this belief and meta-analyze existing published and unpublished studies to assess the overall effect of lack of control on conspiracy beliefs. The overall effect was small and not statistically significant (d = −0.05), and was not moderated by comparison group (baseline vs. control affirmation), type of manipulation used to threaten control, inclusion of a manipulation check, or sample type. However, the predicted effect of control was more likely to be observed when beliefs were measured in terms of specific conspiracy theories, rather than as general or abstract claims. Overall, the present studies to date offer limited support for the hypothesis that conspiracy beliefs arise as a compensatory control.     

Egocentric and allocentric navigation strategies in Williams syndrome and typical development

Recent findings suggest that difficulties on small‐scale visuospatial tasks documented in Williams syndrome (WS) also extend to large‐scale space. In particular, individuals with WS often present with difficulties in allocentric spatial coding (encoding relationships between items within an environment or array). This study examined the effect of atypical spatial processing in WS on large‐scale navigational strategies, using a novel 3D virtual environment. During navigation of recently learnt large‐scale space, typically developing (TD) children predominantly rely on the use of a sequential egocentric strategy (recalling the sequence of left–right body turns throughout a route), but become more able to use an allocentric strategy between 5 and 10 years of age. The navigation strategies spontaneously employed by TD children between 5 and 10 years of age and individuals with WS were analysed. The ability to use an allocentric strategy on trials where spatial relational knowledge was required to find the shortest route was also examined. Results showed that, unlike TD children, during spontaneous navigation the WS group did not predominantly employ a sequential egocentric strategy. Instead, individuals with WS followed the path until the correct environmental landmarks were found, suggesting the use of a time‐consuming and inefficient view‐matching strategy for wayfinding. Individuals with WS also presented with deficits in allocentric spatial coding, demonstrated by difficulties in determining short‐cuts when required and difficulties developing a mental representation of the environment layout. This was found even following extensive experience in an environment, suggesting that – unlike in typical development – experience cannot contribute to the development of spatial relational processing in WS. This atypical presentation of both egocentric and allocentric spatial encoding is discussed in relation to specific difficulties on small‐scale spatial tasks and known atypical cortical development in WS.