Social integration and social support in a life crisis: Effects of macrosocial change in east Germany

The breakdown of the former communist system in East Germany was a major critical life event for those who left that country as well as for those who stayed behind. When the borders were opened, a longitudinal study was launched to examine the psychological readaptation process. Some indicators of social changes of migrants compared to nonmigrants were available. At three points in time over 2 years, both groups reported on their social bonding and social support. Migrants readjusted well by making new friends. In particular, young men were socially active, and more same-sex than opposite-sex friendships were established. The group of young migrants reported having received the most support, in particular when they had a partner. Anticipated support, in contrast, was highest for young single women who did not migrate. Results contribute to the understanding of social dynamics that occur after a stressful relocation.     

Bereavement,received social support,and anxiety in the elderly: A longitudinal analysis

Abstract

Determinants of anxiety and life satisfaction were examined among the elderly. Study I related the experience of stressful loss events, i.e., the death of a friend or family member, as well as received social support, to anxiety. Support buffered the effects of life events: Only those who received no support after loss were highly anxious. Study II explored determinants of anxiety and life satisfaction over a twelvemonth period. About half of the criterion variance could be explained. Perceived health turned out to be an influential predictor, whereas the role of social support remained ambiguous. The results are discussed in terms of social factors and emotions in the life of the elderly.     

Positive affect, negative affect, stress, and social support as mediators of the forgiveness-health relationship

Structural equation modeling was used to test a model in which positive affect, negative affect, perceived stress, and social support were hypothesized to mediate the relationship between forgiveness and mental and physical health. Six hundred and twenty-three undergraduates completed a battery of self-report measures. Results of the analyses indicated that the forgiveness-health relation was mediated by positive affect, negative affect, stress, and the interrelationship between negative affect and stress. There was limited support for social support and the interrelationship between positive affect and social support as mediators. The results suggested that the relationship between forgiveness and health is mediated rather than direct. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Measures of life stress and social support specific to an Asian student population

We designed two new measures—the Index of Life Stress (ILS) and the Index of Social Support (ISS)—to assist in the prediction of cultural adjustment for an Asian international student population. In the present study, these two measures were administered to 101 Asian international students. Stability estimates over 1 month were high: .97 for the ILS and .81 for the ISS. Construct validity, assessed via factor analyses, and concurrent validity, assessed via regression analyses to criteria of depression, hopelessness, and suicide ideation were satisfactory. Incremental validity for these two measures relative to extant measures of life stress and social support were computed. Results from these analyses indicated that these two measures added incrementally to the prediction of adjustment beyond that offered by existing measures.     

Marital intimacy,family support,and secondary traumatization: A study of wives of veterans with combat stress reaction

Abstract

The main aim of the study was to assess the role of family variables in the process of secondary traumatization among wives of post-traumatic veterans. We compared a sample of 49 wives of Israeli veterans with combat stress reaction (CSR) from the 1982 Lebanon War with a sample of 31 wives of Israeli veterans who fought in the war without developing CSR. We assessed their psychological reactions to the war, their health status six years later, and their reported levels of marital intimacy and family support after the war. When compared with controls, wives of veterans with CSR reported more negative emotions and lower perceived intimacy after the war, and greater severity of psychiatric and somatic symptoms six years later. Results also indicate that the greater the perceived marital intimacy, the less the negative emotions wives of veterans with CSR felt after the war and the better their health status six years later. In addition, wives of veterans with CSR who reported having received more support from their families after the war reported more anxiety and hostility than wives who received less support. The roles of marital intimacy and family support in the process of secondary traumatization were discussed.     

Culture,control, and coping: New perspectives on social support

Researchers have offered various explanations for inconsistent findings in the social support literature. Some contend that the detection of either buffering or direct effects depends on the mode of measurement. Others have demonstrated that person variables (e.g., locus of control) moderate support utilization during stressful times. This study attempts to integrate the issues of measure type, locus of control orientation, and cultural influence in a comprehensive study comparing Anglo-Americans and Chinese nationals. Measures appropriate for testing the stress-buffering model of social support were given to 198 students in a Midwestern university and 200 students in mainland China. Both measure type and locus of control orientation mediated the process of support utilization in each culture, but not in the same manner across cultures. For Anglos, stress-buffering effects of both perceived and received support were found only with internals. For Chinese, main effects and a buffering pattern from perceived support were found only with externals. The received support measure yielded negative buffering effects with the latter culture.     

The psychosocial impact of Hurricane Katrina: contextual differences in psychological symptoms, social support, and discrimination

This study tested a contextual model of disaster reaction by examining regional differences in the psychosocial impact of Hurricane Katrina. A total of 386 individuals participated in this study. All were recruited in the primary areas affected by Hurricane Katrina and included residents of metropolitan New Orleans (Orleans Parish, Louisiana), Greater New Orleans (i.e., Metairie, Kenner, Gretna), and the Mississippi Gulf Coast (i.e., cities along the coast from Waveland to Ocean Springs, Mississippi). Participants were assessed for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, other psychological symptoms, perceptions of discrimination, perceptions of social support, evacuation distance, and the extent to which they experienced hurricane-related stressful events. Results were consistent with previous research on the impact of disasters on mental health symptoms. Findings extended research on individual differences in the response to trauma and indicated that regional context predicted unique variance in the experience of discrimination, social support, and emotional symptoms consistent with the theoretical model presented.     

Assessment of the life stress-depression relationship: The use of social support as a moderator variable

Two hundred and fifty-two undergraduates completed a modified version of the Life Experience Survey (LES), the Beck Depression Inventory (Revised), and a measure of social support. Correlations between negative and total life changes on the LES and the Beck were significant for individuals with high social support (r=.36 and .29), but these correlations were significantly higher for individuals with low social support (r=.67 and .66). In addition, positive LES scores were significantly correlated with the Beck for individuals with low social support (r=.37), and individuals with low social support had higher mean scores on the Beck,F(1,250)=20.72,p<.0001. These findings were interpreted as supporting the theory of Holmes and Rahe and Sarason and Johnson that aversive life changes are related to depression, and provide evidence for the view the positive life changes can also be stressful. These data also support the concept of individual differences in vulnerability to stress and the role of social support in this vulnerability. The use of social support as a moderator variable appears to enhance correlations between the LES and depression to the level of clinical utility.     

Social support,occupational stress and anxiety

When occupational stressors, that is stress-producing environmental circumstances (SPECs) in the workplace, lead to anxiety, this anxiety is considered work-related strain. Social support is frequently recommended as a treatment of such strain, because it is expected to help in one of three ways: by directly reducing the anxiety, by interacting with SPECs to reduce the strength of their effects on anxiety, and by weakening the strength of the SPECs themselves. Future research on anxiety and social support in conjunction with work-related SPECs could shed new light on the relations among these three, variables by employing one or more of three approaches: designing investigations that allow stronger causal inference, testing hypotheses derived from theory, and examining potential cross-cultural differences in the nature of and reactions to social support.     

The relation of self-supporting personality, enacted social support, and perceived social support

This study examines the relational model of self-supporting personality, enacted social support, and perceived social support in a sample of 482 Chinese high school students using the Self-Supporting Personality Scale for Adolescent Students (SSPS-AS), the Social Support Rating Scale (SSRS), and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). Results from the cross-sectional structural equation analyses revealed that interpersonal initiative, interpersonal openness, personal openness and personal initiative predicted perceived social support through the mediating role of enacted social support, while interpersonal responsibility, interpersonal flexibility, and personal initiative predicted perceived social support directly. Thus, the hypothesized relational model of personality, enacted social support, and perceived social support was supported. The positive relational schema may be the main underpinning of the relation of self-supporting personality, enacted social support, and perceived social support. Culture also may influence the relation.     

Adolescent suicidal behaviors as a function of depression,hopelessness, alcohol use,and social support: A longitudinal investigation

Surveyed two high school cohorts (ns=698 and 283) to study independent prospective predictors of adolescent suicidal behaviors (thoughts, communicatio to others, attempts). Within each cohort, there were two measurements conducted 6 months apart. Structural equation models were tested, with depressive symptoms, hopelessness, alcohol consumption, social support, and gender serving as predictors. In the larger cohort, depression predicted later levels of all three suicidal behaviors controlling for baseline suicidal behaviors. Also, suicidal thoughts predicted later communications, and suicide attempts predicted future thoughts. In the smaller cohort, alcohol consumption predicted all three suicidal behaviors at the later measurement, whereas depression was predictive only of later thoughts. Major issues regarding prevention, theories of suicide and negative affect, and methodological/analytical approaches were discussed.     

In search of altruistic community: Patterns of social support mobilization following Hurricane Hugo

Twelve months after Hurricane Hugo, 1,000 disaster victims and nonvictims were asked about social support they exchanged following the hurricane. Victims of disaster received and provided very high levels of tangible, informationa, and emotional support. Disaster exposure (loss and harm) was a strong predictor of help received and a modest predictor of help provided. However, postdisaster help was not distributed equally and disaster exposure was more strongly related to social support in some groups than in others. Race, education, and age most consistently moderated the impact of disaster exposure on receipt of postdisaster support. Blacks and less educated victims received less help than similarly affected victims who were white or more educated. Relative disadvantage of being old in receiving support was not the case for those elderly disaster victims who experienced threats to their lives or health. Some subgroups of victims were relied upon disproportionately for providing assistance. Implications for social support research are addressed. This research was supported by Grant MH45069 from the Violence and Traumatic Stress Research Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health to Fran H. Norris, principal investigator.     

The relationship of social support to physical and psychological aspects of AIDS

Abstract

This study explored the social support networks of 50 homosexual males with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Data gathered by self report questionnaires and medical records included diagnosis, number of medical symptoms, sociodemographics, extensive information about social support networks, mood state and physical health status. Variables associated with good psychological and physical adaptation included satisfaction with support, instrumental support and emotional support. Results of this study conflict with previous studies in that worse physical condition was not positively associated with satisfaction with support, was related to less instrumental support and was not associated with increased quantitative support. The measures of satisfaction with support, instrumental support and emotional support were all quite high, even though network size was small.     

神经及内分泌系统对社会支持缓冲应激的调节机制

应激是生活中不可避免的事件,过度应激也是许多疾病发生的诱因。应激会引起一系列生理反应,包括激活自主神经系统及神经内分泌系统,表现为自主神经系统(ANS)和下丘脑–垂体–肾上腺(HPA)活动的增加。社会支持通过改变或抑制应激相关脑区的活动,缓冲了应激引起的ANS和HPA轴活动,使机体快速恢复到应激前水平,避免应激引起的内稳定失衡对机体的伤害。     

Church-based social relationships, belonging, and health among older Mexican Americans

The purpose of this study is to explain how church-based emotional support influences the health of older Mexican Americans. This issue is evaluated with a theoretical model that contains the following core linkages: (1) older Mexican Americans who go to church more often will be more likely to receive emotional support from fellow church members; (2) older Mexican Americans who receive more support from their fellow church members will be more likely to feel they belong in their congregation; (3) older Mexican Americans who feel they belong in their congregation are likely to have a stronger sense of personal control; and (4) older Mexican Americans who have a stronger sense of personal control are likely to enjoy better health. Data from a recent nationwide survey of older Mexican Americans provide support for each of these relationships.     

Social support, coping, life events, and posttraumatic stress symptoms among former peacekeepers: a prospective study

This study examined both cross-sectionally and longitudinally the relationship between social support, coping strategies, additional stressful life events, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among Dutch former peacekeeping soldiers. Two groups of peacekeepers were investigated: 311 peacekeepers who participated in the peacekeeping operation in Lebanon between 1979 and 1985, and 499 peacekeepers who were deployed after 1990. These peacekeepers completed a questionnaire in 1996 and again in 1998. The results show that more negative social contacts and fewer positive social contacts were associated with more PTSD symptom severity. More use of the coping strategies ‘wishful thinking’ and ‘accepting responsibility’ was related to more PTSD symptoms. Conversely, more planful problem solving and seeking social support was related to less PTSD symptom severity. In addition, a bilateral relationship was found between additional stressful life events and PTSD symptom severity. The results indicate that social support and coping strategies may be valuable aspects of prevention and intervention programs.     

Traumatisation,psychological defence style,coping, symptomatology,and social support in HIV-positive: A pilot study

This paper examines degree of traumatisation, defence styles, coping strategies, symptomatology, and social support in a small sample of HIV-positive men and women in an effort to ascertain the psychological implications of living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Traumatisation and the potentially mediating effects of defence styles have only been the subject of a few studies of HIV positives. The study is based on a socio-demographic questionnaire, the Impact of Event Scale, the Defence Style Questionnaire, the Coping Styles Questionnaire, the Trauma Symptom Checklist, and the Crisis Support Scale. A degree of traumatisation that warrants treatment was found together with an association between particular coping strategies and symptomatology, and particular defence styles and symptomatology, respectively. Social support had increased over time, which is contrary to other research findings on social support.     

The relationship between daily stress and health: Replicating and extending previous findings

Abstract

The present study was an attempt to investigate the impact of daily stress, or hassles, on the physical and psychological health status of 112 adolescents over 10 consecutive days. Measures of hassles, daily somatic symptoms and mood, overall health status, and perceived social support were taken. A principal components analysis of the newly designed Secondary School Students' Hassles Scale generated four factors of which “management of time and work” accounted for 41 percent of the variance. Results supported previous findings that hassles levels were related inversely to daily health, daily mood, and overall health status. Perceived social support was found to be associated with general health but not with daily health and mood, and results from partial correlation analyses challenged the buffering role of social support between hassles and adaptational outcomes. The cross-cultural applicability of the hassles concept was discussed.     

Impact of social support on health status and life satisfaction in people with a spinal cord injury

Abstract

Purpose: Assessment of the impact of received social support on functional health status and life satisfaction in people with spinal cord injury (SCI). Design: Respondents were 176 people with SCI between 18 and 65 years of age and living in the community. Mean time after injury was 3.6 years. Problem-oriented and emotion-oriented support, received from family members, friends and relatives, and professionals were assessed with the Sources of Social Support Inventory. Health status was assessed with the Sickness Impact Profile 68 and life satisfaction with the Life Satisfaction Questionnaire. Structural equation modelling with LISREL V8 was used to study relationships of different types and sources of social support with health status and life satisfaction.Results: Emotion-oriented support led to better psychological functioning and to greater life satisfaction. In addition, emotion-oriented support from the family led to greater satisfaction with relationships and emotion-oriented support from friends and acquaintances led to less satisfaction with social life. Problem-oriented support was not clearly related to health status and life satisfaction; there was only a negative relation between problem-oriented support and satisfaction with social life. Support, problem-oriented or emotion-oriented, from health-care professionals showed no relationships with health status or life satisfaction.Conclusions: Emotion-oriented support from family members and friends was most important for people with SCI. Greater problem-oriented support appears to be related to poorer life satisfaction.     

Stress,social support,and problem-solving appraisal/skills: Prediction of suicide severity within a college sample

This study assessed whether stress, social support, and interpersonal problem-solving appraisal/skills were predictive of level of suicidality within a chronic suicidal college sample. Stepwise regression analyses were used to assess whether stress, social support, and problem-solving were independently predictive of severity of suicide ideation. In addition, hierarchical regression analyses were used to test the mediational nature of social support and problem-solving in the stress-suicidality relationship. Problem-solving confidence was found to be a significant predictor of severity of suicide ideation. In addition, both perceived problem-solving skills and social support mediated the relationship between stress and level of suicide ideation. However, only one of the two perceived problem-solving skills interactions was in the expected direction. This study provided support for the importance of problem-solving confidence and the interaction of stress and social support in the prediction of suicide severity. Unlike previous studies, this study did not find problem-solving skills/deficits to mediate the stress-suicidality relationship.This research was supported by NIMH Grant 1-18MH48133.