Know How to Transmit Knowledge?

Intellectualism about knowledge‐how is the view that practical knowledge is a species of propositional knowledge. I argue that this view is undermined by a difference in properties between knowledge‐how and both knowledge‐that and knowledge‐wh. More specifically, I argue that both knowledge‐that and knowledge‐wh are easily transmitted via testimony while knowledge‐how is not easily transmitted by testimony. This points to a crucial difference in states of knowledge. I also consider Jason Stanley's attempt to subsume knowledge‐how under an account of de se knowledge. I argue that there are crucial differences between de se knowledge and knowledge‐how. Thus, this paper advances both the discussion of intellectualism and the literature on the nature of de se knowledge.     

隐性知识的具身机制、转化与管理

隐性知识是知识经济时代的发展关键,在多个学科的知识体系中占有重要位置。由于隐性知识有内隐表征、主观经验和情境性等多种跨层属性,导致管理学、体育学等学科面临隐性知识转化与管理的难题。隐性知识本质上是具身性的,身体经验与情境的互动为个体在知识系统中归纳与形成隐性知识提供了基础。隐性知识的提取与应用机制为组织对隐性知识的转化与管理提供了桥梁,而隐性知识的具身机制是其提取与应用的依据。本文将基于具身认知理论,结合多个学科的研究证据,对不同情境下的隐性知识提取与应用机制进行分析,旨在梳理出隐性知识的具身机制,并针对隐性知识的未来研究、转化与管理提出建议。     

A Capacity to Get Things Right: Gilbert Ryle on Knowledge

Gilbert Ryle's distinction between knowledge‐how and knowledge‐that faces a significant challenge: accounting for the unity of knowledge. Jason Stanley, an ‘intellectualist’ opponent of Ryle's, brings out this problem by arguing that Ryleans must treat ‘know’ as an ambiguous word and must distinguish knowledge proper from knowledge‐how, which is ‘knowledge’ only so‐called. I develop the challenge and show that underlying Ryle's distinction is a unified vision of knowledge as ‘a capacity to get things right’, covering both knowledge‐how and knowledge‐that. I show how Ryle specifies the general notion into knowledge‐how and knowledge‐that and discuss the mutual interdependence exhibited by the two forms of knowledge. Ryle's positive view of knowledge, properly understood, emerges as an important, neglected, alternative which should be brought back into the ongoing conversation about practical and theoretical knowledge.     

小学数学教师职业知识的结构与内在关系

本研究以小学数学分数起始教学为媒介,通过自编的小学数学教师职业知识测验,考察了162名小学数学教师在学科知识、一般教育学知识和教育实践知识等三类知识上的表现,并据此探讨了这三类职业知识间的相互关系。研究结果表明,自编的小学数学职业知识测验具有良好的信度和结构效度,教师的学科知识和一般教育学知识能显著地预测其教育实践知识。     

初一学生数学学习的学科领域知识表征特点

学科领域知识由学理内容知识、认知过程知识和问题条件知识组成。本研究以529名七年级学生为被试,测查学生在数学学习中的学科领域知识表征特点,结果发现:(1)三种类型知识表征存在显著差异,学理内容知识表征水平最高,问题条件知识表征水平最低;(2)学优生的学科领域知识表征水平显著高于中等生和学困生;(3)认知过程知识表征、问题条件知识表征水平与数学学业成绩显著相关;(4)学生对学理内容知识重要性评价最高,问题条件知识最低。     

Measuring unconscious knowledge: distinguishing structural knowledge and judgment knowledge

This paper investigates the dissociation between conscious and unconscious knowledge in an implicit learning paradigm. Two experiments employing the artificial grammar learning task explored the acquisition of unconscious and conscious knowledge of structure (structural knowledge). Structural knowledge was contrasted to knowledge of whether an item has that structure (judgment knowledge). For both structural and judgment knowledge, conscious awareness was assessed using subjective measures. It was found that unconscious structural knowledge could lead to both conscious and unconscious judgment knowledge. When structural knowledge was unconscious, there was no tendency for judgment knowledge to become more conscious over time. Furthermore, conscious rather than unconscious structural knowledge produced more consistent errors in judgments, was facilitated by instructions to search for rules, and after such instructions was harmed by a secondary task. The dissociations validate the use of these subjective measures of conscious awareness.     

大学生知识价值观的实证研究

该研究从理论上界定了知识价值观及其基本成分(即知识价值目标、知识价值评价和知识价值手段)。运用设计的《大学生知识价值观调查表》,对2043名大学生进行了调查。结果显示,大学生在知识价值目标、知识价值评价和知识价值手段三方面都呈现出年级、性别和专业的差异。     

The influence of prior knowledge on the retrieval‐directed function of note taking in prior knowledge activation

Background. Prior knowledge activation facilitates learning. Note taking during prior knowledge activation (i.e., note taking directed at retrieving information from memory) might facilitate the activation process by enabling learners to build an external representation of their prior knowledge. However, taking notes might be less effective in supporting prior knowledge activation if available prior knowledge is limited. Aims. This study investigates the effects of the retrieval‐directed function of note taking depending on learners' level of prior knowledge. It is hypothesized that the effectiveness of note taking is influenced by the amount of prior knowledge learners already possess. Sample. Sixty‐one high school students participated in this study. A prior knowledge test was used to ascertain differences in level of prior knowledge and assign participants to a low or a high prior knowledge group. Method. A 2×2 factorial design was used to investigate the effects of note taking during prior knowledge activation (yes, no) depending on learners' level of prior knowledge (low, high) on mental effort, performance, and mental efficiency. Results. Note taking during prior knowledge activation lowered mental effort and increased mental efficiency for high prior knowledge learners. For low prior knowledge learners, note taking had the opposite effect on mental effort and mental efficiency. Conclusions. The effects of the retrieval‐directed function of note taking are influenced by learners' level of prior knowledge. Learners with high prior knowledge benefit from taking notes while activating prior knowledge, whereas note taking has no beneficial effects for learners with limited prior knowledge.     

LIBERTY,NECESSITY AND CHANCE: HOBBES'S GENERAL THEORY OF EVENTS

Locke characterizes sensitive knowledge as knowledge of the existence of external objects present to the senses, and in terms of an ‘assurance’ that falls short of the certainty of intuition and demonstration. But it is unclear how this fits with his general definition of knowledge, as the perception of the agreement or disagreement of ideas, and it is unclear how that assurance can amount to knowledge, rather than amounting to mere probability (which he contrasts with knowledge). Some contend that Locke does not regard sensitive knowledge as genuine knowledge, but only honourifically calls it knowledge. In contrast, I argue that Locke holds that sensitive knowledge is knowledge, though he takes the conditions for it to be very different from the conditions for intuitive and demonstrative knowledge. It is not the assurance alone which Locke thinks qualifies sensitive knowledge as such: it is also the fact that the assurance arises from the actual employment of the senses upon external objects, and the fact that the senses do not generally deceive us, which he thinks qualifies sensitive knowledge as genuine knowledge. That there is a (tacit) form of externalism in Locke's account of sensitive knowledge is the main thesis of this paper.     

儿童运动认知的朴素理论

主要介绍了关于运动的朴素理论中儿童具有的两类知识系统,一是儿童在日常运动中能够描述出来的朴素信念即外显的概念知识,另一是儿童和运动的物体发生相互作用时所具有的知识即内隐的知识,并进一步阐述了内隐知觉知识和外显概念知识之间具有不可渗透性,内隐运动知识和外显概念知识存在着分离,内隐运动知识可以通过运动表象的方式转化为外显概念知识。提出了有待进一步探讨的问题：错误信念是否具有任务特殊性,内隐知觉知识和内隐运动知识之间关系等     

Patterns of strengths and weaknesses in children's knowledge about fractions

The purpose of this study was to explore individual patterns of strengths and weaknesses in children's mathematical knowledge about common fractions. Tasks that primarily measure either conceptual or procedural aspects of mathematical knowledge were assessed with the same children in their fourth- and fifth-grade years (N=181, 56% female and 44% male). Procedural knowledge was regressed on levels of conceptual knowledge, and vice versa, to obtain residual scores. Residual scores capture variability in each kind of math knowledge that is not shared with the other type of knowledge. Cluster analysis using residuals indicated four distinct knowledge profiles in fourth graders: (a) higher than expected conceptual knowledge and relatively lower procedural knowledge, (b) relatively lower conceptual knowledge and higher procedural knowledge, (c) lower concepts but expected levels of procedural knowledge, and (d) relatively higher than expected levels of both procedural and conceptual knowledge. In fifth grade, another cluster emerged that showed lower procedures but expected levels of conceptual knowledge. In general, students with relatively lower than expected conceptual knowledge showed poorer accuracy on measures used to form the clusters and also word problem setups and estimation of sums. Implications for explaining seemingly conflicting results from prior work across studies are discussed.     

The Effects of Real-World Knowledge on Text Processing Among Older Adults

In the present study, the effects of knowledge on text processing were investigated among older adults. Past research has shown that knowledge reduces processing time among older readers, however, this finding was based on schematic knowledge. Schematic knowledge is a highly prescribed knowledge that draws on commonly held general world knowledge. Domain knowledge, on the other hand, is specialized real-world knowledge within a particular area (e.g., chess, physics, cooking). Past research has shown that domain knowledge engages additional processing resources among younger adults. If this is true of the elderly, then this type of knowledge may pose a challenge to older adults. Regression analyses were used to investigate word-by-word reading time patterns among high- and low-knowledge older adults. Older high-knowledge readers did in fact increase resource allocation to texts that drew on domain knowledge and in turn showed higher levels of recall. These data suggest that knowledge promotes the productive allocation of processing resources among older adults, thus enabling them to take full advantage of knowledge.     

Can unconscious knowledge allow control in sequence learning?

This paper investigates the conscious status of both the knowledge that an item is legal (judgment knowledge) and the knowledge of why it is legal (structural knowledge) in sequence learning. We compared ability to control use of knowledge (Process Dissociation Procedure) with stated awareness of the knowledge (subjective measures) as measures of the conscious status of knowledge. Experiment 1 showed that when people could control use of judgment knowledge they were indeed conscious of having that knowledge according to their own statements. Yet Experiment 2 showed that people could exert such control over the use of judgment knowledge when claiming they had no structural knowledge: i.e. conscious judgment knowledge could be based on unconscious structural knowledge. Further implicit learning research should be clear over whether judgment or structural knowledge is claimed to be unconscious as the two dissociate in sequence learning.     

Testing for Independent Effects of Prosocial Knowledge and Technical Knowledge on Skill and Performance

This study extended previous research (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997) on antecedents of job performance by testing for independent effects of prosocial and technical knowledge in a sample of 208 medical students. Results show that prosocial knowledge is uncorrelated with technical knowledge and that it contributes incremental variance to clinical performance in Primary Care after accounting for technical knowledge and clinical skill. Findings indicate Agreeableness is an important correlate of prosocial knowledge but not of technical knowledge. Unexpectedly, cognitive ability is not significantly related to either kind of knowledge or clinical performance. These results reinforce the idea that knowledge is a primary determinant of performance and that one type of knowledge, prosocial, has roots in Agreeableness, whereas a different type of knowledge, technical, does not.     

Defining and measuring conceptual knowledge in mathematics

A long tradition of research on mathematical thinking has focused on procedural knowledge, or knowledge of how to solve problems and enact procedures. In recent years, however, there has been a shift toward focusing, not only on solving problems, but also on conceptual knowledge. In the current work, we reviewed (1) how conceptual knowledge is defined in the mathematical thinking literature, and (2) how conceptual knowledge is defined, operationalized, and measured in three mathematical domains: equivalence, cardinality, and inversion. We uncovered three general issues. First, few investigators provide explicit definitions of conceptual knowledge. Second, the definitions that are provided are often vague or poorly operationalized. Finally, the tasks used to measure conceptual knowledge do not always align with theoretical claims about mathematical understanding. Together, these three issues make it challenging to understand the development of conceptual knowledge, its relationship to procedural knowledge, and how it can best be taught to students. In light of these issues, we propose a general framework that divides conceptual knowledge into two facets: knowledge of general principles and knowledge of the principles underlying procedures.     

知识差异和知识冲突对团队创新的影响

通过情景模拟实验比较了高低知识差异和有无知识冲突两个变量四个水平下的团队创新度。结果表明,知识差异和知识冲突存在着交互作用;当知识差异较小时,知识冲突对于团队创新度具有积极作用;当知识差异较大时,知识冲突所起的是一种震荡作用;当团队不存在知识冲突时,较高的知识差异对团队创新度具有积极作用;存在知识冲突时,高知识差异团队和低知识差异团队的创新度没有显著差异     

交互式认知：隐性知识的认知机制

在社会建构论和分布式认知等相关理论的基础上,结合隐性知识的特点提出了交互式认知理论,目的在于揭示隐性知识的认知机制。交互式认知是指不同知识主体认知的相互影响和相互作用的过程,其中师傅带徒弟和实践社区这是企业管理实践中最为常见的两种隐性知识传播形式,     

Does medial prefrontal cortex activity during self‐knowledge reference reflect the uniqueness of self‐knowledge?1

Abstract: For this study, functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to examine whether medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) activity during self‐knowledge reference reflects the uniqueness of self‐knowledge. Experiment 1 investigated neural activity during self‐knowledge reference (“Does the word describe you?”) and self‐monitoring (“Does the word make you feel pleasant?”). The results showed that self‐knowledge reference and self‐monitoring activate common neural substrates within the MPFC. Experiment 2 compared neural activity produced by self‐knowledge reference, other‐knowledge (acquaintance‐knowledge) reference (“Does this word describe the person?”), and evaluation (“Is this word socially desirable?”). Results showed no increase in MPFC activity during self‐knowledge reference relative to other‐knowledge reference. Furthermore, self‐knowledge reference and other‐knowledge reference share common neural substrates within the MPFC. The results described indicate that it is unlikely that MPFC activity during self‐knowledge reference reflects the uniqueness of self‐knowledge. The feature, as reflected in MPFC activity, is discussed.     

21世纪医学教育的知识结构初探

在知识爆炸的今天,个人全面系统掌握医学基础知识只能是一个幻想,新世纪要求有关教育知识结构的变革。继续延用经典医学学科多平层型知识结构进行21世纪医学教育已不适应,可满足需求的应是以可持续发展的新知识为核心的核心－壳层型新知识结构。目前似应以细胞知识为核心重组医学教育知识结构体系,按应用基础、临床等知识壳层对冗杂的经典学科知识进行精炼与重组。     

Epistemic dependence and collective scientific knowledge

I argue that scientific knowledge is collective knowledge, in a sense to be specified and defended. I first consider some existing proposals for construing collective knowledge and argue that they are unsatisfactory, at least for scientific knowledge as we encounter it in actual scientific practice. Then I introduce an alternative conception of collective knowledge, on which knowledge is collective if there is a strong form of mutual epistemic dependence among scientists, which makes it so that satisfaction of the justification condition on knowledge ineliminably requires a collective. Next, I show how features of contemporary science support the conclusion that scientific knowledge is collective knowledge in this sense. Finally, I consider implications of my proposal and defend it against objections.