The Relative Importance of Ethnicity: Ethnic Categorization among Older Children

In this study the relative importance of ethnic categories is investigated among Dutch and Turkish children (10 to 12 years of age). Children were asked to categorize and indicate preferences with respect to eight hypothetical contemporaries in different situations that were described by a combination of ethnicity, gender, and a psychological characteristic (“expressed affect or smartness”). The results show, first, that children preferred to use psychological characteristics for categorization. Second, the use of ethnic categories was domain-dependent: Ethnicity was used less often in indicating preferences for playing than preferences for working on an educational task and for explaining quarrels. Third, the use of ethnic categories was affected by stereotypes. It is concluded that the widely accepted idea that ethnicity plays a central role in the judgements of children in multi-ethnic situations seems overstated.     

The intergenerational transmission of ethnic essentialism: how parents talk counts the most

The present study analyzed the role of parents as potential sources of children's essentialist beliefs about ethnicity. We tested 76 parent–child (5‐year‐olds) dyads of Jewish Israeli parents from three social groups, defined by the kindergartens children attended: national religious, secular, or Jewish‐Arab integrated. We assessed parents' and children's beliefs, and parents' usage of ethnic attitudinal and categorization markers in a book‐reading activity. Overall, national religious parents manifested the strongest ethnic essentialism and endorsement of anti‐negotiations with Palestinians, and were the most likely to express negative attitudes and mark ethnic categories in their conversations with their children. Moreover, regression analyses revealed that ethnic categorization in parents' speech was the most reliable predictor of children's ethnic essentialism. Ethnic essentialism is transmitted to children not via explicit communication of intergroup beliefs or attitudes, but rather via the sheer marking of categories in ways that resonate with children's own intuitive ways of conceptualizing the social world.     

Seeing isn't believing: the effect of intergroup exposure on children's essentialist beliefs about ethnic categories

Adults and children seem to essentialize certain social categories. Three studies investigated whether, and how, exposure to ethnic diversity affects this bias. Participants were 516 kindergarten, 2nd grade, and 6th grade Israeli Jewish and Arab children attending regular (mono-cultural) or integrated schools. Study 1 revealed that exposure increased the salience of ethnicity, especially for Jewish children. Study 2 showed no differences among groups at kindergarten regarding the relevance of recalling a story character's ethnicity, but by 2nd grade, Jewish children attending integrated schools were the most likely to mention such information. Finally, Study 3 revealed that while all kindergarteners started off at a similar level of essentialism towards ethnicity, exposure affected Arab, but especially Jewish, children's essentialist beliefs. Moreover, there were negative correlations between the salience of and essentialism towards ethnicity. Thus, interethnic exposure alleviated children's essentialist bias towards ethnicity and did so via making children aware of, rather than blind to, ethnic categories.     

Blinded by the accent! The minor role of looks in ethnic categorization

The categories that social targets belong to are often activated automatically. Most studies investigating social categorization have used visual stimuli or verbal labels, whereas ethnolinguistic identity theory posits that language is an essential dimension of ethnic identity. Language should therefore be used for social categorization. In 2 experiments, using the "Who Said What?" paradigm, the authors investigated social categorization by using accents (auditory stimuli) and looks (visual stimuli) to indicate ethnicity, either separately or in combination. Given either looks or accents only, the authors demonstrated that ethnic categorization can be based on accents, and the authors found a similar degree of ethnic categorization by accents and looks. When ethnic cues of looks and accents were combined by creating cross categories, there was a clear predominance of accents as meaningful cues for categorization, as shown in the respective parameters of a multinomial model. The present findings are discussed with regard to the generalizability of findings using one channel of presentation (e.g., visual) and the asymmetry found with different presentation channels for the category ethnicity.     

Ethnic in‐group bias among minority and majority early adolescents: The perception of negative peer behaviour

Using social identity theory (SIT) as a framework, this study investigates in‐group bias in the context of negative social behaviour among Dutch and Turkish children (10–13 years of age) living in the Netherlands. Using stories about peer behaviour in which ethnicity was an available dimension, the children were asked to evaluate the perpetrator and to explain the negative behaviour. Explanations were analysed in terms of the locus of explanation and the level of linguistic abstraction at which the perpetrator's behaviour was explained. Hence, there were three measures of in‐group bias. In addition, ethnic identification, perceived multicultural education and participants' experiences with ethnic victimization were considered as predictor variables. The results revealed a small degree of in‐group bias for the evaluation and the locus of explanation, but not for linguistic abstraction. Furthermore, for both ethnic groups, it was found that stronger ethnic identification was related to a less negative evaluation of an in‐group perpetrator. A higher degree of ethnic victimization was related to a less negative perception of the perpetrator. In addition, a higher degree of perceived exposure to multicultural education was associated with a more negative perception of the perpetrator, particularly among the Dutch participants. It was concluded that the study of ethnic attitudes among children should focus more on the perceptions of actual ethnic conflicts and on specific settings such as schools. Furthermore, it is important to use explicit and implicit measures and to include both majority and minority group children.     

Portrayal of body weight on children's television sitcoms: a content analysis

Television programs portray characters with idealized body types that for most viewers are unattainable. These body types have become a common source of comparison for many young viewers who evaluate their own self-worth and bodies based on the models they see on television. This study examines body weight, both in terms of frequency and portrayals, focusing on how preadolescent and adolescent characters’ bodies are presented on the sitcoms from three children's television networks. The results indicate that while children's situation comedies have relatively few overweight characters, this small percentage closely parallels national figures. Male and female characters do not differ in their distribution across weight categories. However, when character ethnicity is factored, significant shifts occur. Surprisingly, no differences were observed in the portrayal of physical and mental attributes among weight categories except in social popularity where overweight characters were not as embedded in social networks. Compared to other relevant studies, this research provides some evidence that the treatment and portrayal of overweight characters in children-targeted sitcoms is more positive, equitable, and less stereotypical than in other programming venues and that children are experiencing body type diversity in these fictional portrayals. Nonetheless, above average weight characters still suffer some social marginality and ethnic misrepresentation.     

The role of ethnic identity and self-construal in coping among African American and Caucasian American seventh graders: an exploratory analysis of within-group variance

Much coping research has been conducted comparing members of different ethnic groups using discrete racial classifications. However, the past two decades have seen the construct of ethnicity evolve into a complex variable that must be assessed in a more comprehensive way. This study explored how ethnicity, a discrete variable, and the continuous variables of a person's ethnic identity and self-construal contribute to the use of particular coping strategies across various situations. One hundred twelve seventh graders (67 African Americans and 45 Caucasian Americans) from three suburban middle schools completed questionnaires assessing ethnic identity, self-construal, and coping strategies for medical, test, and social criticism stressors. Results supported the hypothesis that ethnicity as a discrete variable is not associated with coping, but that ethnic identity and self-construal are. It was also found that high scores on the ethnic identity and self-construal scales were indicative of more positive psychological adjustment. Implications for future research and methodological considerations are discussed.     

Learning What is Essential: Relative and Absolute Changes in Children's Beliefs about the Heritability of Ethnicity

There are conflicting findings regarding the development of essentialist beliefs about social categories. The present studies address these findings by differentiating between the developments of the relative versus absolute essentialist status of categories. Participants were Israeli Secular Jewish and Muslim Arab kindergarteners, second graders, and sixth graders. Study 1 asked children which among alternative properties of a parent was most likely to transfer to a child. Findings showed that while kindergarteners did not systematically discriminate among properties, second and sixth graders privileged ethnicity. Study 2 asked children whether membership in various social categories was biologically or environmentally determined. Findings showed that kindergarteners and second graders, but not sixth graders, believed ethnicity to be biologically inherited. These results are discussed vis-à-vis different theories about the origins of social essentialism.     

Statistical Effects of Religious Participation and Marriage on Substance Use and Abuse in Racial and Ethnic Minorities

Substance use and abuse, which includes alcohol use, alcohol dependence, drug use, and drug dependence, inflicts a substantial toll on Americans. Although studies have demonstrated the protective effect of social support, such as religious participation and via marriage, understanding their influence on racial and ethnic minorities is limited. Thus, the aim of this study is to assess the impact of social support on substance use and abuse in racial and ethnic minorities. The Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys, sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health, a repository of race, ethnicity, and mental health data, was leveraged to develop four models using multivariate analysis, specifically logistic regression to estimate the probability of meeting the criteria for substance use and abuse. Racial and ethnic minorities were found to have lower rates of substance use and abuse compared to Whites, and foreign-born individuals were consistently less likely to use or abuse substances compared to American-born minorities. Mental health conditions were highly associated with substance use and abuse, and social support by way of religious participation and marriage was protective against substance use and abuse. In racial and ethnic minorities, nativity and social support were protective against substance use and abuse; however, these protective factors did not completely eliminate risk. Thus, although race and ethnicity are important to understanding health outcomes and health behaviors, such as substance use and abuse, it is the intersection of multiple factors, representing internal and external forces, which may be more informative and offer a more comprehensive picture of the landscape influencing drug and alcohol use and dependence. Targeted interventions should consider leveraging religious spaces and bilingual materials when attempting to reach racial and ethnic minorities.     

Field dependence-independence and social traditionalism

Three independent variables—ethnicity, sex, and urbanism—were used to investigate differences in the cognitive style, field dependence-independence, among six ethnic subcultures of Trinidad. It was assumed that differences in field dependence-independence reflected differences in adherence to values of social traditionalism among the six subcultures. The major hypothesis of the study was that a field-dependent cognitive style would be functional for the maintenance of social traditionalism, whereas a field-independent cognitive style would facilitate modernization. It was found that ethnicity, sex and urbanism were significant predictors of field dependence-independence, but because of a significant interaction effect, the results were not uniform. Ethnicity was the strongest predictor of cognitive style, for example, but whether it did, in fact, significantly predict field dependence-independence depended on the sex and the urbanism of the subjects. Consequently, the hypothesized rank order of ethnic groups by field dependence-independence held only for urban males.     

Effects of in‐group and out‐group ethnicity on children's attitudes towards members of the in‐group and out‐group

This study tested predictions drawn from social identity development theory (SIDT) (Nesdale, 1999a) concerning the development of young children's ethnic attitudes. 5‐7‐ and 9‐year‐old children (N = 159) participated in a minimal group study in which they were assigned to a team which had higher drawing ability than a competitor team. The team members were revealed to be of the same (Anglo‐Australian) vs. different (Pacific Islander) ethnicity (in‐group ethnicity). The ethnicity of the competitor team was varied in the same way. The children subsequently rated their liking for, and similarity to, the in‐group and the out‐group, and the extent to which they wished to change groups. Children liked in‐group members more than out‐group members. Liking for in‐group members was unaffected by the ethnic composition of the groups, but liking for outgroup members was reduced when the ethnic composition of the out‐group differed from that of the in‐group. Children felt most similar to same‐group, same‐ethnicity members and least similar to different ethnicity out‐group members. The desire to change teams increased with age but there was no intention to align with same ethnicity individuals. The extent to which the findings provide support for SIDT is discussed.     

Social representations of history in Malaysia and Singapore: On the relationship between national and ethnic identity

Social representations of history were investigated using surveys among university populations of ethnic Malays, Chinese, and Indians in Singapore and Malaysia. Representations of history and historical leaders tended to be hegemonic or consensual, showing low levels of conflict across ethnicity and nationality, even regarding the separation of these two nations. Tendencies towards in-group favoritism and ontogeny were slight, but statistically significant on some measures. National and ethnic identity were positively correlated, with ethnic identity stronger than national identity in Malaysia, and strongest among Malays in Malaysia. National identity was strongest among Chinese in Malaysia, followed by Chinese in Singapore. Results of regression analyses on national identity suggest that ethnicity is more sensitive in Malaysia than in Singapore. Results are interpreted through the frameworks provided by social representations theory and social identity theory. It is argued that hegemonic representations of history are associated with positive correlations between national and ethnic identity.     

Sex, ethnic, and social differences in test anxiety among Israeli adolescents

The effects of sex, ethnicity, and social class on levels of test anxiety were examined among a sample of 416 adolescent students in Israel. Significant sex differences in mean levels of test anxiety were found, with girls scoring consistently higher than boys across ethnic, social, and grade categories. Pupils of low socioeconomic status (SES) also scored consistently higher than pupils of high SES across grades. Nevertheless, this study provides little support for the commonly held view that sociocultural or sex group differences in school achievement are due, in any meaningful way, to differences in test anxiety. The group differences, though significant for SES and sex, were of negligible magnitude, and the correlation between test anxiety scores and grade point average was minimal for the group as a whole and nonsignificant for students of Eastern background, who have been purported to be particularly affected by high levels of test anxiety. The findings do support other cross-cultural studies, which have found only a modicum of shared variance between test anxiety and grades. It is concluded that test anxiety is not a particularly valid predictor of achievement or ability.     

Is conferralism descriptively adequate?

This paper will develop a set of concerns about a central feature of Ásta's account of social categories that she calls “conferralism.” I argue that generalist approaches to social categories such as Ásta provides are inadequate as a way of understanding the diverse formations of diverse categories, and that conferralism overemphasizes the power of top-down forces (what she calls “persons with standing”) to confer social identities. This approach then underplays the horizontal and bottom-up influences on category formation as well as the historical formation of many social identities, especially ethnicity and race. Conferralism sets aside not only physical differences that play a role in some categories but also group-related historical experiences and practices that produce the “base properties” that justify the use of social identity categories.     

The Differential Construction of Ethnicity: The Case of Egyptian and Moroccan Immigrants in Israel

There is a tendency in Israel to distinguish the different ethnic communities into two categories: ashkenazim (Occidental Jews) and sephardim (Oriental Jews). The Israeli census adds to this homogenization by classifying immigrants as either of Asian African origin or European American origin. These classifications largely overlook the distinct cultural differences among these groups. In effect, the census builds ethnicity in one way, while immigrant groups construct their own ethnicity in another manner. Egyptian and Moroccan Jews, although both classified as sephardim, construct a very different ethnicity. This is tied to their history, the size of their community, and their experience in Israel as well as their social class, cultural practices, and networks. The construction of immigrant ethnicity in this study is analyzed as well as each group's perceptions of its collective past in their country of origin, and the likelihood of the second generation to preserve Egyptian or Moroccan ethnicity in Israel.     

民族本质论对跨民族交往的影响——以中国内地的藏族大学生为例

本研究以中国内地的藏族大学生为例,通过两个研究探讨了民族本质论对跨民族交往的影响。研究一通过相关研究发现,民族本质论与接触数量、接触质量呈显著负相关,与民族间的社会距离呈显著正相关;研究二启动了民族本质论和民族建构论,结果发现,相比本质论启动条件,民族建构论启动条件下藏族大学生的跨汉民族交往意愿较高。本研究说明,民族本质论是影响跨民族交往的重要因素,加强民族的社会建构论是促进跨民族交往的重要举措。     

The influence of gender and ethnicity on children's peer collaborations

Gender and ethnicity are important aspects of children's everyday social relationships, yet little is known about how these social categories influence children's collaborative interactions. In the present study, 322 White (Caucasian) and South Asian boys and girls (mean age, 7.5 years) collaborated in pairs on easy and difficult versions of a model completion task. As expected, girls were less assertive than boys in conversation, yet this relation held only for all‐Asian pairs (i.e., an Asian boy and girl in conversation). Also consistent with expectations, levels of conversational affiliation were lowest in cross‐ethnic interaction. The influence of gender and ethnicity on conversations did not vary in light of contrasting cognitive demands of the tasks. Results are discussed in relation to work on effective peer collaboration and the potential role of contact in promoting positive ethnic and gender group attitudes.     

Is Promoting an African American Unfair? The Triple Interaction of Participant Ethnicity,Target Ethnicity,and Ethnic Identity1

This research examined the effect of manipulating a hypothetical candidate's ethnicity on the perceived fairness of promotions. In an experimental study, 142 undergraduates were assigned randomly to rate the fairness of promotions going to either a White or an African American candidate. Findings indicated that a significant three‐way interaction between participant's ethnicity, candidate's ethnicity, and scores on Phinney's (1992) multigroup ethnic identification index associated with perceptions of promotion decisions. Both White and African American participants with a strong ethnic identity gave higher fairness ratings when a member of their own ethnic group was promoted. These results demonstrate the importance of assessing the extent to which people identify with their ethnic group in addition to assessing their demographic categories.     

Race/ethnicity and mental health in the first decade of the 21st century

Recent empirical studies on mental health generally report racial/ ethnic differences in depression rates but typically do not control for potential confounding by sample contextual variations in historical epoch, geographical location, and social demography. An empirical study of race/ethnicity differences in psychological distress is reported as an attempt to control these contexts by using a sample that is homogeneous in age, historical epoch, geography, and social demography (954 youth ages 18-19 living in a single, large urban community). No mean differences in psychological distress were observed among four racial/ethnic groups: Asians, African Americans, Latinos, and non-Hispanic Whites. A second analysis compared 17 different racial/ethnic groups defined in terms of family national origin. No differences in psychological distress were found among these groups. The findings are consistent with the view that race/ethnicity itself is not related to disparities in mental health.     

A multidimensional approach to explore cross-cultural differences in coping behavior: comparing Druze and Jews in Israel

Assuming that culture is a multidimensional variable, the current study explored the possibility that the interactions between ethnicity and other culture-related variables--rather than ethnicity alone--will better describe differences in coping behavior. In the study, cross-cultural differences among Israeli Jews and Israeli Druze in the use of various ways of coping were examined while also taking into account respondents' gender, age, self-esteem, sense of coherence, national identification, and religiosity. Comparing Israeli Jews and Israeli Druze, results indicate significant differences in levels of religiosity and coherence. Referring to coping behavior, findings show that differences in ways of coping could be attributed mainly to gender differences rather than ethnic differences Thus, at least in the case of comparing Israeli Jews vs. Israeli Druze, religiosity and gender are powerful determinants of coping behavior, while ethnicity has only a limited contribution in explaining variance in a preferred way of coping. It is suggested that ethnicity has a moderating role in shaping coping behavior, as it might influence person's self-perception and level of emotionality, which in turn shape the person's ways of coping. Future explorations among various age and ethnic groups are needed to enable generalization of the current study findings.